I 


PRACTICAL   HANDBOOK 

FOE 

THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

AND   OP 

BIBLE  LITERATURE 


I-  u 


SI 


PRACTICAL  HANDBOOK 


FOR 


THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


AND    OF 


BIBLE  LITERATURE 


INCLUDING 


BIBLICAL  GEOGRAPHY,  ANTIQUITIES,  INTRODUCTION 

TO  THE  OLD  AND  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT, 

AND   HERMENEUTICS 


BY 

DR.  MICHAEL  SEISENBERGER 

ROYAL   LYCEUM,    FREISING 


TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  SIXTH  GERMAN  EDITION 

BY 
A.  M.  BUCHANAN,  M.A.  (LONDON) 

AND   EDITED  BY 

THE  REV.  THOMAS  J.  GERRARD 


NEW  YORK 
JOSEPH   F.  WAGNER 


litfjtl  ©batat 

REMIGIUS   LAFORT,  S.T.L. 

Censor  Librorum 


Bmjmmattir 

*JOHN    M.  FARLEY,  D.D. 

Archbishop  of  Ne<w  York 

NEW  .YORK,  October  I,  1911 


IOAN  STACK 


Copyright,  1911,  by  JOSEPH  F.  WAGNER,  New  York 


THE    UNIVERSITY    PRESS,   CAMBRIDGE,   U.S.A. 


EDITORIAL  PREFACE 

book  is  offered  to  the  English-speaking  peoples  as  a  small 
•*•  contribution  towards  the  realization  of  the  great  and  noble 
aims  of  the  reigning  Sovereign  Pontiff,  Pope  Pius  X.  The  heroic 
stand  which  he  has  made  for  the  preservation  of  the  Word  of 
God,  commands  at  once  the  sympathy  and  admiration  of  all  the 
faithful.  Just  as  in  the  realm  of  philosophy  he  has  insisted  on 
the  true  personality  and  dignity  of  man,  and  as  in  theology  on 
the  true  transcendence  and  majesty  of  God,  so  also  has  he  in  the 
realm  of  biblical  science  insisted  on  the  Divine  Character  of  the 
Inspired  Word. 

When  the  Church  speaks  officially  through  the  Sacred  Congre- 
gations, she  does  not  argue  with  her  children.  She  teaches  them. 
She  says,  plainly,  what  is  the  truth  concerning  the  Divine  Reve- 
lation. Then,  after  the  Church  has  spoken,  the  work  of  the 
theologians  and  critics  begins.  It  is  their  office  to  justify  the 
Word  of  the  Church  to  men.  Hence,  the  remark  of  those  who 
say  that  their  errors  have  been  condemned,  but  not  refuted,  is 
pointless.  The  functions  of  condemnation  and  refutation  are 
quite  distinct,  and  pertain  to  different  spheres  of  the  Church's 
action. 

A  translation  of  Dr.  Seisenberger's  work  has  been  asked  for,  as 
providing  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  biblical  question  from  the 
Catholic  standpoint,  suitable  to  the  exigencies  of  the  present  day. 
It  is  a  handbook  for  the  hard-worked  parochial  clergy.  It  is  an 
introduction  for  the  Seminary  student.  Yet,  although  it  is 
merely  a  synopsis,  it  is  enriched  on  every  page  with  ample  refer- 
ences to  the  more  specialized  works  —  a  detailed  list  of  which  is 
appended  to  the  book  —  so  that  the  reader  who  wishes  to  pursue 
any  given  subject  more  deeply  has  the  material  at  hand  without 
further  search. 

C89 


vi  EDITORIAL  PREFACE 

The  treatment  in  the  book  itself,  however,  will  be  found  amply 
sufficient  for  dealing  with  that  ever-increasing  number  of  souls 
who  pick  up  rationalist  conclusions  anywhere  and  everywhere, 
and  are  thus,  somewhat  needlessly,  disturbed  in  their  faith. 

The  editor  would  beg,  with  all  deference,  to  call  attention  to 
a  theological  distinction  which  would  seem  to  have  come  into 
prominence  since  the  author  first  wrote  his  book,  and  which  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  made  sufficiently  clear  even  in  the  latest 
edition.  It  is  the  distinction  between  inspiration  and  revelation. 
All  the  Bible  is  inspired,  but  not  all  the  Bible  is  revealed.  A 
sacred  writer,  for  instance,  might  write  down  an  account  of  an 
event  as  he  had  seen  it  or  heard  it  from  an  eye-witness.  The 
source  of  his  information  is  purely  natural.  In  writing  it  down, 
however,  he  does  so  under  the  influence  of  that  supernatural 
charism  which  is  known  as  inspiration.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
might  have  the  knowledge  infused  into  his  mind  directly  by  God. 
Such  was  the  way  in  which  St.  Paul  received  the  information  for 
his  classical  passage  on  the  Holy  Eucharist.  That  was  a  reve- 
lation. And,  since  he  was  moved  by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  embody 
it  in  one  of  his  epistles,  it  was  also  a  part  of  inspiration.  The 
distinction  is  necessary,  if  one  is  to  understand  the  difference 
between  Catholic  plenary  inspiration  and  Protestant  literal 
inspiration. 

The  Douay  version  of  Scripture  has  been  generally  adopted, 
but  there  are  about  three  or  four  places  where  this  did  not  liter- 
ally agree  with  the  German  version  used  by  the  author.  These 
cases  have  been  rendered  by  a  literal  translation  of  the  German. 


THOMAS  J.  GERHARD. 


HERRENWIEB,  BADEN-BADEN. 

Feast  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  1911. 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Editorial  Preface v 

first  Part 
THE   HOLY  LAND 

GEOGRAPHY 

Introduction 3 

1.  Situation  of  Palestine 4 

2.  Extent 6 

3.  Names 6 

4.  Climate 8 

5.  Configuration .  9 

6.  Natural  Products 11 

7.  Plagues  of  Common  Occurrence *     .    .  14 

8.  Dwellings,  Food,  and  Clothing 15 

9.  Inhabitants  Before  the  Israelites      .    .         19 

10.  Palestine  as  Divided  among  the  Israelites 21 

11.  Descriptions  of  Places 

I.  Judaea 22 

II.  Samaria 30 

HI.   Galilee 31 

IV.  The  Country  East  of  the  Jordan 32 

Secotrti 

THE   HOLY  PEOPLE 

BIBLICAL  ARCHAEOLOGY 
A.    Outlines  of  the  History  of  Israel 

1.  Traditional  and  Modern  Accounts  of  the  History  of  Israel 37 

2.  Results  of  the  Modern  Account 41 

3.  General  Refutation 42 

4.  Refutation  fr-nn  the  Olu  Testament 45 

5.  Refutation  f-om  the  S  imaritan  Pentateuch 52 

6.  Refutation  from  Oriental  Records 55 

B.    God,  and  the  Gods,  in  Israel 

1.  Monothe.' 3m  and  Polytheism 56 

2.  Worship  of  the  Stars • 58 

3.  Worship  of  Images 59 

4.  Chanaanite  Deities 60 

5.  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Deities 63 

6.  Egyptian  Deities 65 

C.    The  Religious  Institutions  of  Israel 

Sources  of  Information   ....                                                                                    .    .  66 


viii  CONTENTS 

JFirst  Section 
HOLY   PLACES 

I.  THE  TABERNACLE 

Page 

1.  General  Description  ........................      69 

2.  The  Court  of  the  Tabernacle  .....................      72 

THE  SACRED  FURNITURE   AND   UTENSILS 

3.  Furniture  in  the  Court  of  the  Tabernacle     ................  74 

4.  Furniture  in  the  Holy  Place    .....................  75 

5.  The  Holy  of  Holies     ........................  78 

II.   THE  TEMPLE 

(a)  Solomon's  Temple 

6.  Introductory      .......................     ...  80 

7.  The  House  of  the  Temple    ...........    ...........  81 

8.  The  Courts  of  the  Temple  ......................  83 

9.  Furniture  of  the  Temple     ......................  84 

(b)   The  Second  Temple 

10.  Zorobabel's  Temple    ........................  85 

11.  Herod's  Temple     ....................    .....  87 

12.  The  Synagogues     .........................  89 


ton 
HOLY   PERSONS 

13.  Introductory      ..........................  90 

14.  TheLevites  ...........................  91 

].-».   The  Priests   ...........................  94 

16.  The  High  Priest     .........................  96 

17.  Consecration  of  Priests  .......................  99 

The  Mosaic  Origin  of  the  Priesthood    ..................  101 

Appendix,     The  Synedrium  and  the  Jewish  Sects     .............  103 

irtJ  Section 
SACRED   RITUAL 

I.   SACRIFICES 

18.  What  could  be  Offered    .......................  106 

19.  Ritual  of  Sacrifice       ...................     .....  107 

20.  Varieties  of  Sacrifice  ........................  109 

(a)  Bloody  Sacrifices 

21.  Holocausts,  or  Burnt  Offerings    ...............     .....  109 

22.  Peace  Offerings     .........................  110 

23.  Sin  Offerings     ..........................  112 

24.  Trespass  Offerings      ...............     .     ........  113 

25.  Special  Kinds  of  Bloody  Sacrifices  ...................  115 

(b)   Unbloody  Sacrifices 

26.  Meat  Offerings  ..........................  117 

27.  Drink  Offerings          ........................  118 

28.  Jealousy  OfferingR      ...............     .     ........  119 

'JO.   The  Temple  Taxes      ........................  119 


CONTENTS  ix 

II.   PURIFICATIONS  AND  OTHER  RELIGIOUS  CEREMONIES 

Page 

30.  Legal  Defilement  ..........................  12} 

31.  The  Defilement  of  Death    ......................  121 

32.  Uncleanness  Due  to  Leprosy  .....................  122 

33.  Sexual  Uncleanness  ........................  123 

34.  Marriage  Laws  .    .     .  •  ..........    .............  124 

35.  Circumcision     ..........................  127 

36.  Reception  of  Proselytes  .......................  130 

37.  Laws  Concerning  Food  .......................  131 

38.  Fasting     ............................  133 

39.  Prayer      ............................  134 

40.  Music  and  Singing      ........................  134 

41.  Blessings  ............................  137 

42.  Vows  and  Curses  .........................  137 

JFourtfj  Section 
SACRED   SEASONS 

43.  The  Calendar     ..........................  139 

44.  Daily  Worship  in  the  Temple  .....................  141 

45.  The  Sabbath      ..........................  141 

46.  The  New  Moons     .........................  144 

47.  The  Sabbatical  Year  ........................  144 

48.  The  Tear  of  Jubilee    ........................  145 

49.  ThePasch     .....  -   ......................  146 

50.  Pentecost  ............................  149 

51.  The  Day  of  Atonement  .......................  150 

52.  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles    ......................  153 

53.  Festivals  Instituted  after  the  Captivity    .................  154 

ftjnrti  part 

HOLY  SCRIPTURE 

DECREES  OP  THE  HOLY  SEE  RELATING  TO  HOLY  SCRIPTURE 

Encyclical  of  Pope  «•••«  on  the  Biblical  Question      ..............  159 

Syllabus  of  Errors    ..........................  179 

Pius  X  on  the  Decisions  of  the  Biblical  Commission,  etc  .............  184 

INTRODUCTION  TO   THE  BIBLE 

1.  General  Principles.    Historical  Survey    .................  187 

2.  Arrangement  of  an  Introduction  to  the  Bible    ...........    .         .     .  189 


JFtrgt 

ORIGIN  OF  HOLY  SCRIPTURE,   OR  HOLY  SCRIPTURE  AS  THE  WORD  OF  GOD 

3.  General  Survey      .........................    19° 

INSPIRATION 

4.  Teaching  of  the  Church  on  the  Subject  of  Inspiration    .     .    ..........    190 

5.  What  in  Meant  by  Inspiration     ....................    192 

THE  CANON  OF  HOLY  SCRIPTURE 

6.  Meaning  of  the  Expression      .....................    195 


7.  Old  and  New  Testaments 


196 


8.   Formation  of  the  Old  Testament  Canon 196 


x  CONTENTS 

Page 

9.   Contents  of  the  Old  Testament  Canon     .................  198 

10.  Continuation     ..........................  200 

11.  Origin  of  the  Canon  of  the  New  Testament  ................  H>2 

12.  Contents  of  the  New  Testament  Canon    .................  203 

13.  The  New  Testament  Canon  of  the  Earliest  Churches     ............  205 

14.  Ecclesiastical  Decisions  .......................  207 

Appendix.    Protestant  Opinions  Regarding  the  Canon  ............  207 

15.  Apocryphal  Books  .........................  208 

SeconU  Part 

GENERAL  INTRODUCTION.    THE  BIBLE  AS  A  WHOLE 

16.  Transition     ...........................  212 

THE  ORIGINAL  TEXT  OF  HOLY  SCRIPTURE 

17.  Biblical  Languages  in  General     .............    .......  212 

18.  Hebrew     ............................  213 

19.  Chaldee    ..........................    .    .  214 

20.  Greek  .............................  215 

21.  Original  Form  of  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Texts  ..............  216 

•J-2.   Later  Forms  of  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Texts    .............     ,217 

23.  TheMasora   ...........................  220 

24.  Hebrew  Manuscripts  and  Printed  Editions   ................  222 

25.  Value  of  the  Masoretic  Text    .....................  225 

26.  The  Original  Text  of  the  Greek  Books  of  the  Bible   .............  226 

27.  The  Greek  Manuscripts  .......................  227 

28.  The  Most  Important  Greek  Manuscripts  .................  228 

29.  Greek  Printed  Editions  ....................  \    .    .  231 

TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

30.  General  Remarks  .........................  235 

31.  The  Septuagint  ..........................  235 

32.  Other  Greek  Translations  ......................  238 

33.  Later  History  of  the  Septuagint.    Origen     ................  240 

34.  Chaldee  Translations  (Targumim)   ...................  242 

35.  Samaritan  Translation  of  the  Pentateuch      ................  244 

36.  Syriac  Translations"  ........................  244 

37.  Latin  Translations.    Itala  and  Vulgate    .................  247 

38.  Continuation.    The  Vulgate  in  the  Middle  Ages    ..............  252 

39.  Continuation.    The  Council  of  Trent  ..................  253 


part 

SPECIAL  INTRODUCTION.    THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY 
The  Books  of  the  Old  Testament 

1.  Survey  and  Classification    ......................    257 

JFirst  Section 

2.  The  Pentateuch.    History,  Criticism,  Objections,  Defense      ..........    258 

JSeconto  .Section 

From  the  Entrance  of  the  Israelites  into  Chanaan  to  the  Division  of  the  Kingdom 

3.  Survey  .............................  275 

4.  Josue    .............................  275 

5.  Judges      ............................  277 

6.  Ruth     .............................  279 

7.  The  Books  of  Samuel,  or  First  and  Second  Books  of  Kings    ..........  280 


CONTENTS  xi 

Page 

8.  Old  Testament  Poetry 282 

9.  The  Psalter 284 

10.  Proverbs 291 

11.  Canticle  of  Canticles 294 

12.  Ecclesiastes 297 

13.  The  Book  of  Job 298 

StyirtJ  Section 

From  the  Division  of  the  Kingdoms  until  the  End  of  the  Captivity 

14.  Historical  Survey 302 

15.  Prophecy  in  General 304 

16.  Jonas 307 

17.  Amos 309 

18.  Joel 310 

19.  Abdias 312 

20.  Osee 313 

21.  Micheas 314 

22.  Isaias 315 

23.  Nahum 318 

24.  Sophonias 319 

25.  Habakuk 320 

26.  Jeremias 322 

27.  The  Book  of  Lamentations 325 

28.  Baruch 326 

29.  Ezechiel 328 

30.  Daniel 330 

JFourtlj  Section 

From  the  Captivity  to  the  Close  of  the  Old  Testament  Revelation 

31.  Historical  Survey 333 

32.  Kings.    (Third  and  Fourth  Books  of  Kings) 334 

33.  Chronicles  or  Paralipomena 336 

34.  Esdras  and  Nehemias 338 

35.  Esther 340 

36.  Tobias 342 

37.  Judith 344 

38.  The  Books  of  Macliabees 346 

39.  Aggeus 348 

40.  Zacharias 349 

41.  Malachias 350 

42.  Sirach  or  Ecclesiasticus 352 

43.  Wisdom 355 

THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 

1.  Classification 358 

JFirst  Section 

2.  The  Gospels  in  General 358 

3-9.   St.  Matthew 365 

10-15.   St.  Mark 374 

16-20.  St.  Luke 383 

21.  The  Synoptic  Writers 390 

22-26.  St.  John 391 

27-31.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles 399 

SeconD  Section 

32-36.  St.  Paul  the  Apostle 404 

37.  The  Epistle  to  the  Romans 412 


xii  CONTENTS 

Page 

38-38.  The  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians 415 

40.  The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians 418 

41.  The  Epistle  to  the  Epheslans 420 

42.  The  Epistle  to  the  PhUippians 

43.  The  Epistle  to  the  Colossians 423 

44-45.  The  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians 

46-47.  The  Epistles  to  Timothy 427 

48.  The  Epistle  to  Titus 429 

49.  The  Epistle  to  Philemon 431 

50.  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 431 

51.  The  Catholic  Epistles 434 

52.  The  Epistle  of  St.  James 434 

63.   The  Two  Epistles  of  St.  Peter 436 

54.  The  Three  Epistles  of  St.  John 

55.  The  Epistle  of  St.  Jude  the  Apostle .     .  442 

Cfjiro  .Section 

56.  The  Apocalypse 444 

JFourtfj  part 

INTERPRETATION  OF  HOLY  SCRIPTURE   (HERMENEUTICS) 

1.  Introduction 449 

jhrst  .Section 

THE  MEANING  OF  HOLT  SCRIPTURE 

2.  The  Meaning  in  General  of  Holy  Scripture 450 

3.  The  Application  of  the  Literal  and  Mystical  Meaning 453 

4.  Of  Accommodation 457 

Secant!  Section 

OF  DISCOVERING  THE  MEANING  OF  HOLY  SCRIPTURE  (HEURISTICS) 

6.  Principles  laid  down  by  the  Church 459 

6.  Hermeneutical  Rules  Based  on  the  Peculiar  Character  of  the  Bible 462 

(Efyiro  Section 

EXPLANATIONS  OF   THE  TEXT 

7.  Paraphrases 466 

8.  Scholia 467 

9.  Glosses .     .     .  468 

10.  Commentaries 470 

11.  Study  and  Reading  of  the  Bible 472 

Eiegetical  Bibliography 473 

Works  to  which  Reference  has  been  Made 475 

Conclusion 479 

INDEX  or  SUBJECTS 483 

MAPS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 

The  Temple  at  the  Time  of  Christ Frontispiece 

Chanaan  as  Divided  among  the  Twelve  Tribes opposite  20 

Ancient  Jerusalem ,  22 

Environs  of  Jerusalem 

Journeyings  of  the  Children  of  Israel 

The  Tabernacle 

Palestine  in  the  Time  of  Christ ,  370 

The  Journeys  of  St.  Paul ,  406 


FIRST  PART 


PRACTICAL  HANDBOOK  FOR 
THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

INTRODUCTION 

THE  Christian  religion,  and  with  it  the  whole  civilization  of 
Christian  nations,  is  based  upon  Israel.  The  modern  world, 
which  calls  itself  Christian,  is  inseparably  connected  with  the 
people  of  Israel,  and  the  new  Covenant  between  God  and  man, 
instituted  by  Christ,  is  only  the  extension  and  development 
of  the  old  Israelite  Covenant.  Out  of  Israel  proceeded  the 
Saviour  and  salvation  for  the  whole  world.  "  Salvation  is  of 
the  Jews  "  are  words  used  by  Christ  Himself  in  His  conversation 
with  the  Samaritan  woman  (John  iv.  22).  Amidst  the  Israel- 
ites grew  up  the  body  of  literature  also,  that  both  Jews  and 
Christians  venerate  as  "  Holy  Writ."  What  Greece  and  Rome 
received  from  the  East  they  passed  on  with  their  own  additions 
to  the  West,  and  thence  the  benefits  of  salvation  have  been 
spread  abroad  over  the  whole  world. 

Not  only  believers,  but  also  unbelievers,  study  Holy  Scripture 
with  peculiar  interest.  The  former  do  so  for  their  own  edifi- 
cation, to  strengthen  their  faith  and  to  find  means  to  defend 
the  truth;  the  latter  often  show  even  greater  zeal,  if  possible,  in 
their  efforts  to  undermine  the  foundations  of  faith.  No  one  can 
attain  to  a  full  comprehension  of  the  documentary  evidence  for 
our  faith  without  taking  into  consideration  the  circumstances 
of  the  early  history  of  the  Jewish  race  and  the  course  of  events 
affecting  this  people. 

Therefore,  before  beginning  to  discuss  Holy  Scripture,  we  pro- 
pose to  give  some  account  of  the  Holy  Land,  including  a  sketch 
of  the  history  and  religious  institutions  of  Israel.  Then  we  can 
proceed  to  discuss  the  Bible  and  its  interpretation. 


THE  HOLY  LAND 

GEOGRAPHY1 

1.   SITUATION  OF  PALESTINE 

IF  Israel  was  the  nation  chosen  by  God  to  preserve  the  true 
religion  and  to  be  instrumental  in  the  salvation  of  mankind, 
—  and  for  the  present  we  shall  assume  this  to  be  the  case,  — 
then  it  was  but  fitting  that  a  suitable  habitation  should  be 
assigned  to  this  people,  where  it  might  live  its  own  life  and 
fulfill  the  task  assigned  to  it.  No  country  could  be  found  better 
adapted  to  this  purpose.  (1)  Palestine  resembled  a  lofty  for- 
tress, shut  off  and  protected  on  all  sides  from  hostile  invasions. 
In  the  north  Lebanon  formed  a  strong  boundary;  on  the  west 
was  the  sea,  the  stormy  breakers  of  which  made  approach  on 
that  side  almost  impossible;  the  south  and  the  east  were  pro- 
tected by  deserts.  In  this  way  the  inhabitants  of  this  country 

1  Apart  from  the  sacred  writings  themselves,  we  derive  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  geographical  features  of  Palestine  from  the  works  of  some 
Greek  and  Latin  authors  who  mention  the  East,  and  especially  the  little 
Jewish  nation.  Chief  among  these  are  Strabo  the  geographer,  and  the 
Elder  Pliny;  but  Herodotus,  Diodorus  of  Sicily,  Plutarch  and  Tacitus 
also  supply  information.  Allusion  must  be  made,  moreover,  to  the  Ono- 
masticon  (Name  book)  of  Holy  Scripture,  compiled  by  Eusebius  and 
translated  into  Latin  by  Saint  Jerome  (printed  by  Vallarsi  among 
Saint  Jerome's  works;  cf.  Onomastica  sacra,  ed.  de  Lagarde,  Gottingen, 
1887).  Descriptions  written  by  travelers,  and  especially  by  pilgrims  in 
biblical  countries,  are  also  important.  The  earliest  pilgrim's  book  is  the 
Itinerarium  Burdigalense,  the  author  of  which  was  an  unknown  Chris- 
tian from  Bordeaux,  who  visited  the  Holy  Land  about  333  A.  D. ;  but  the 
Peregrinatio  8.  Silvia?  Aquitance  (385-388),  Rome,  1888,  and  the  Pere- 
grinatio  s.  Paulce,  by  Saint  Jerome,  are  almost  equally  old.  The  Hodce- 
poricon  s.  Willibaldi,  Eichstadt,  1881,  contains  an  account  of  a  journey 
made  by  this  saint  in  the  years  723-727.  Cf.  Itinera  hierosolymitana 


THE   HOLY  LAND  5 

were  cut  off  from  intercourse  with  the  world  and  its  errors,  and 
were  able  to  live  in  peace  and  to  serve  the  true  God  undisturbed. 
(2)  Palestine  lay  in  the  center  of  the  civilized  world  as  known 
to  the  ancients.  Its  seclusion  was  not  absolute,  for  it  was  sur- 
rounded by  civilized  countries,  viz.,  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  Phoe- 
nicia and  Egypt,  Greece  and  Italy.  Jerusalem  lay  midway 
between  Babylonia  and  Athens  and  between  Ninive  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Nile.  The  chief  trading  routes  skirted  the  bound- 
aries of  Palestine  and  the  great  trading  cities  of  Tyre  and 
Sidon,  Damascus,  Ninive  and  Babylon  were  all  in  its  neigh- 
borhood. Thus  it  was  possible  for  God's  chosen  people  to 
enjoy  all  the  benefits  of  civilization  without  being  forced  to 
share  its  disadvantages.  (3)  The  position  of  Palestine  was 
favorable  to  its  future  task.  Its  central  situation  between  the 
three  continents  of  the  ancient  world  was  carefully  adapted  by 
Providence  for  the  speedy  dissemination  amongst  all  countries 
of  the  tidings  of  the  Messianic  kingdom,  when  the  time  for 
redemption  should  come.  Such  a  position  was  of  the  utmost 
importance  at  a  period  when  almost  all  journeys  were  made 
on  foot,  apart  from  scanty  intercourse  by  means  of  caravans, 
and  navigation,  which  was  carried  on  with  great  difficulty. 
Nowadays  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  form  any  idea  of  the  ob- 
stacles to  travel  and  transport  that  existed  in  antiquity. 

scec.  IV-VHI  ex  recensiotie  Pauli  Geyer  (Corp.  script,  eccl.  lat.  Vindob., 
T.  xxxviiii.),  Leipz.,  1898.  Many  pilgrims'  books  have  come  down  to  us 
from  the  Middle  Ages,  and  of  the  more  recent  books  of  travels  we  may 
mention  particularly  the  works  of  Niebuhr,  Seetzen,  Chateaubriand, 
Schubert,  Geramb,  Robinson,  Tobler,  Mislin,  Sepp,  Dixon,  Schegg,  Mess- 
mer,  Socin,  Keppler,  Fahrngruber,  Lie"vin,  Badeker-Benzinger  and  Riick- 
ert;  also  Meistermann's  Nouveau  guide  de  Terre  Sainte  avec  23  cartes 
et  140  plans,  Paris,  1906.  —  Atlas  Scriptures  sacrce,  auctore  R.  de  Riess, 
ed.  2,  Friburgi,  Br.,  1906.  M.  Hagen,  S.J.,  Atlas  BiUicus,  Paris, 
1907. 

Architectural  remains  and  pieces  of  sculpture  that  have  come  down 
to  us  from  early  times  are  also  interesting,  but  very  few  remains  of  this 
kind  have  been  preserved  in  Palestine.  Further  information  regarding 
the  sources  of  our  knowledge  of  biblical  geography  may  be  obtained  by 
referring  to  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia;  Roehricht,  Bibliotheca  geo- 
graphica  Palcestince,  Berlin,  1890;  Cheyne  and  Black,  Encyclopaedia 
biblica,  London,  1901;  Hastings,  "A  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,"  Edin- 
burgh, 1898-1902;  Vigouroux,  Dictionnaire  de  la  Bible,  Paris. 


6     HANDBOOK   FOR   THE   STUDY   OF   THE   BIBLE 

Ezechiel  v.  5 :  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord  God :  This  is  Jerusalem,  I  have 
set  her  in  the  midst  of  the  nations,  and  the  countries  round  about  her." 

Ezechiel  xx.  6:  "I  lifted  up  my  hand  for  them  (the  Israelites)  to 
bring  them  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  into  a  land  which  I  had  provided 
for  them,  flowing  with  milk  and  honey,  which  excelleth  amongst  all 
lands." 

Deuteronomy  iv.  6:  (The  heathen  are  to  say  of  the  Israelites,)  "Be- 
hold a  wise  and  understanding  people,  a  great  nation." 

Cf.  Gen.  xii.  7;  xiii.  14;  xv.  7,  18;  xvii.  8;  xxvi.  4,  etc.;  Deut. 
xxxii.  8,  etc.;  xxxiii.  28,  29. 


2.  EXTENT 

In  its  configuration  Palestine  falls  into  two  parts,  being  di- 
vided by  the  Jordan  into  a  large  region  lying  to  the  west  of  the 
river  and  a  smaller  one  lying  to  the  east.  The  country  to  the 
west  of  the  Jordan  is  Chanaan,  properly  so  called,  stretching 
from  Lebanon  in  the  north  to  the  Arabian  desert  in  the  south, 
and  from  the  Jordan  on  the  east  to  the  sea  on  the  west.  The 
smaller  district  east  of  the  Jordan  was  formerly  called  Galaad 
or  G-ilead,1  and,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  Perasa;  it  extends  from 
the  range  of  Hermon  on  the  north  to  the  Arnon  on  the  south, 
which  river  flowing  from  the  east  falls  into  the  Dead  Sea.  On 
its  eastern  side  this  district  is  gradually  merged  in  the  great 
plain  of  the  Euphrates.  Between  these  two  regions  lies  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan,  now  called  El  Ghor  — the  depression. 
Palestine  extends,  therefore,  from  latitude  31°  1ST.  to  beyond  33° 
N.,  and  from  longitude  52°  E.  to  beyond  54°E.  Its  length 
from  north  to  south  is  approximately  150  English  miles  and 
its  breadth  from  east  to  west  125  miles.  Its  total  area  is 
about  the  same  as  that  of  the  kingdom  of  Belgium. 

3.  NAMES 

The  oldest  name  for  the  chief  part  of  the  country  was 
Chanaan.  This  name  was  borne  by  Cham's  fourth  son,  the 
ancestor  of  the  Chanaanites,  who  occupied  all  the  land  west 
of  the  Jordan.  The  name  Chanaan  therefore  excludes  the  dis- 

1  Tjn^  is  interpreted  as  meaning  "  the  rugged  region,"  from  y'w 
rough,  rugged;  but  the  traditional  meaning  is  "hill  of  testimony"  (see 
Gten.  xxxi.  21,  etc.). 


THE    HOLY   LAND  7 

trict  eastward  of  the  Jordan,  but  includes  Phoenicia,  and  when 
in  course  of  time  the  Chanaanites  were  driven  to  the  northwest 
as  the  Israelites  settled  in  the  country,  only  Phoenicia  re- 
tained the  old  name  of  Chanaan.  ("  The  woman  of  Chanaan," 
Matt.  xv.  22. )1  Other  names  are:  the  Land  of  Israel,  because 
it  was  inhabited  by  the  descendants  of  Jacob  or  Israel;  Land 
of  the  Hebrews,  i.  e.  the  descendants  of  Heber,  or  the  people 
from  beyond; 2  Land  of  Yahweh  (God),  because  the  country  was 
always  to  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  God  in  a  peculiar  degree, 
and  He  permitted  the  Israelites  to  dwell  in  it  under  definite 
conditions;  Land  of  Juda,  because  from  the  time  of  David 
and  Solomon  onwards  the  tribe  of  Juda  was  pre-eminent,  and 
because  the  exiles  who  returned  from  the  Babylonian  captivity 
belonged  almost  exclusively  to  this  tribe,  so  that  the  people 
came  to  be  known  as  Jews,  and  Greek  and  Roman  writers  speak 
of  the  whole  country  as  Judaea.  The  Jews  call  Palestine  the 
Holy  Land  because  it  belonged  especially  to  God  and  was  sanc- 
tified by  God's  presence  in  the  Temple;  and  Christians  give 

1  It  is  possible  to  derive  Chanaan  from  kana',  to  bend,  to  settle  down, 
and  thus  Chanaan  would  mean  the  low-lying  land,  as  opposed  to  'aram, 
the  high  ground  (Maurer,  Leorikon).    The  early  inhabitants  might  have 
been  called  Chanaanites,  the  low-landers,  and  in  this  case  the  name  of 
the  founder  of  the  race  would  not  have  been  Chanaan,  but  would  simply 
be  unknown.     This  interpretation  is,  however,  inaccurate.     Chanaan  is 
a  mountainous  country  and  Aram  is  chiefly  a  plain  watered  by  rivers; 
hence  Aram  cannot  mean  "  high  ground,"  and  the  origin  of  the  word  is 
doubtful.     We  may  therefore  assume  that  the  name  of  the  founder  of 
the  race  was  transferred  to  the  country  inhabited  by  the  race.  —  As  the 
Phoenicians    were    traders,    the    Israelites    often    called    all    merchants 
"  Chanaanites." 

2  Ewald  derives  the  name  from  Heber,  but  it  seems  better  to  connect 
it  either  with  labar,  to  pass  over,  or  with  'eber,  beyond.    The  name  seems 
to  have  been  originally  given  to  the  Israelites  by  the  heathen  inhabit- 
ants, because  they  came  from  beyond  the  Jordan.    They  generally  spoke 
of  themselves  as  the  Children  of  Israel.     "  Israel "  means  "  God  fight- 
eth," —  a  very  suitable  name  for  the  community  of  believers,  who  were 
constantly  assailed  by  enemies  and  seemed  again  and  again  to  be  on  the 
verge  of  destruction,  but  nevertheless  outlasted  all  their  foes,  because 
God  fought  for  and  with  them.     Thus  the  followers  of  God  under  the 
new  dispensation  are  known  as  the  "  Church  Militant."    Cf.  Wellhausen, 
Isr.  u.  jiid.  Geschichte,  15.    The  struggle  described  in  Gen.  xxxii.  24,  etc., 
when  Jacob's  name  was  changed  to  Israel,  probably  signifies  that  Jacob's 
descendants  would  be  punished  for  their  repeated  resistance  to  God's 
commands,  just  as  Jacob  was  lamed  in  wrestling. 


8       HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 

it  the  same  name  because  it  was  the  scene  of  our  Lord's  life 
and  death.  It  is  called  the  Land  of  Promise  (Heb.  xi.  9),  or 
the  Promised  Land,  because  God  promised  it  to  the  patriarchs 
as  their  dwelling  place.  Lastly,  the  name  Palestine  comes  from 
peleschet  or  Philistine-land;  this  name  was  originally  given 
only  to  the  strip  of  coast  on  the  southwest  inhabited  by  the 
Philistines,  but  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  who  visited  the  coast 
before  they  penetrated  inland,  applied  the  name  to  the  whole 
country. 

4.   CLIMATE 

Lying  as  it  does  in  latitude  32°,  Palestine  has  a  mild  climate, 
and  suffers  neither  from  excessive  heat  nor  from  extreme  cold. 
The  seasons  differ  from  one  another  less  than  they  do  with  us, 
and  in  Holy  Scripture  as  a  rule  only  two  seasons,  winter  and 
summer,  are  mentioned.  Winter  lasts  from  the  beginning  of 
November  until  March,  but  is  not  so  cold  as  ours.  It  sets  in 
with  the  early  rains  (jore  or  chariph),  which  soften  the  ground 
and  facilitate  the  sowing  of  the  winter  crops  (barley  and 
wheat).  Rain  continues  to  fall  intermittently  during  the  fol- 
lowing months,  and  occasionally  snow  is  seen,  but  seldom  lies 
more  than  a  few  days ;  the  earth  hardly  ever  freezes.  February 
is  the  wettest  month  of  the  year.  Corn  reaches  its  full  height 
in  March,  and  after  the  late  rains  (malgosch)  at  the  end  of  this 
month  the  summer  crops  are  sown.1  The  corn  grown  in  winter 
is  harvested  in  April  and  May,  and  then  the  summer  sets  in, 
during  which  rain  seldom  falls;  the  earth  soon  loses  its  ver- 
dure and  most  of  the  brooks  dry  up.  The  heat  increases 
rapidly  and  is  very  oppressive  in  August,  when  the  ther- 
mometer often  rises  above  100°  Fahrenheit.  The  nights,  how- 
ever, are  cool  and  there  is  abundant  dew.  The  days  vary  in 
length  from  ten  to  fourteen  hours.  In  December  the  sun 
rises  a  little  before  seven  and  sets  about  five;  in  June  it  rises 
a  little  before  five  and  sets  soon  after  seven. 

1  The  farmers  anxiously  await  the  rain,  for  it  causes  the  floors  to 
be  filled  with  wheat  and  the  presses  to  overflow  with  wine  and  oil 
(Joel  ii.  24).  Job  boasts  that  men  waited  for  him  as  for  rain  and 
they  opened  their  mouth  as  for  a  latter  shower  (xxix.  23).. 


THE    HOLY   LAND 


5.    CONFIGURATION  * 

Almost  the  whole  country  is  hilly,  as  it  is  crossed  by  off- 
shoots of  the  Lebanon  range.  Lebanon  itself  (=the  white 
mountain)  lies  to  the  north  of  Palestine  and  belongs  not  to  it 
but  to  Syria;  Little  Lebanon  (Antilibanus)  to  the  east  and 
Hermon,  about  10,000  feet  high,  with  its  summit  always  covered 
with  snow,  likewise  belong  to  Syria.  Between  these  two  ranges 
lies  a  broad,  deep  valley  called  Coelosyria  (KoCkij  ^vpia  =  hol- 
low Syria)  which  never  formed  part  of  Palestine. 

1.  Offshoots  of  Mount  Lebanon  form  the  hill  country  west- 
ward of  the  Jordan.     The  most  conspicuous  heights   in   the 
north  are  Thabor  (1850  feet),  and  the  promontory  of  Carmel 
(1800    feet    above    the    Mediterranean).      Farther    south,    in 
Samaria,  are  Garizim  and  Ebal,  both  about  2500  feet  high,  and 
still  farther,  near  Jerusalem,  the  Mount  of  Olives  reaches  a 
height  of  about  2650  feet,  while  some  points  near  Hebron,  quite 
in  the  south,  are  2800  feet  above  sea  level.     The  whole  range 
is  intersected  by  numerous  valleys,  the  broadest  being  the  plain 
of  Esdrelon,  watered  by  the  brook  Kison.     Towards  the  east 
the  mountains  terminate  abruptly  with  the  valley  of  the  Jordan, 
but  towards  the  west  they  sink  in  a  succession  of  terraces  down 
to  the  sea.    Along  the  coast  is  a  flat  strip  of  fertile  land,  known 
as  the  Plain  of  Saron,  where  the  Philistines  dwelt. 

2.  The  mountains  east  of  the  Jordan  are  a  prolongation  of 
the  Little  Lebanon  range,  and  are  from  1300  to  2200  feet  above 
the  sea.    On  the  east  they  sink  gradually  down  to  the  great  plain 
of  the  Euphrates,  but  on  the  west  the  descent  to  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan  is  steep  and  abrupt.    The  high  ground  is  intersected  by 
several  deep  valleys,  along  which  rivers  flow,  the  chief  being  the 
Jabbok  and  the  Arnon. 

3.  The  valley  of  the  Jordan  runs  nearly  due  north  and  south 
between  these  ranges  of  hills  and  extends  from  the  foot  of  Her- 
mon  to  the  Dead  Sea,  and  even  beyond  it,  being  shut  in  by  steep 
hills  on  either  side.     Its  length  is  about  125  English  miles, 

1  A  fuller  account  of  the  configuration  of  Palestine  will  be  found  in 
J.  Wimrner's  Paldstinas  Boden  mit  seiner  Pflanzen-  und  Tierwvlt,  Co- 
logne, 1902. 


10     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

and  its  breadth  varies  from  6  to  13  miles.  Its  climate  is  mild, 
and  its  soil  more  fertile  than  that  of  the  hill  country.  The 
Jordan  (Hajjarden,  the  descending)  rises  on  Mount  Hermon 
and  is  the  chief  river  in  the  Holy  Land;  owing  to  the  rapid 
slope  of  the  land  it  flows  very  quickly,  and  contains  about 
thirty  waterfalls;  it  is  not  navigable.  Quite  in  the  north,  not 
far  from  its  source,  it  flows  through  the  small,  swampy  Lake 
Merom,  and  ten  miles  further  on  it  enters  the  beautiful  Lake 
of  Genesareth.  The  lake  is  over  600  feet  below  the  sea  level, 
is  14  miles  long  and  6  broad,  and  has  sweet,  clear  water,  abound- 
ing in  fish.  Its  banks  are  picturesque,  though  now  desolate.  In 
our  Saviour's  time  they  were  covered  with  prosperous  villages, 
which  He  took  pleasure  in  visiting.  The  Jordan  leaves  the  lake 
by  a  cataract  at  its  southern  end,  being  by  this  time  a  stream 
about  40  feet  broad  and  7  feet  deep.  It  does  not  flow  in  the 
middle  of  the  valley,  but  keeps  along  the  eastern  side,  until  after 
a  further  course  of  nearly  80  miles  it  enters  the  Dead  Sea. 
This  lake,  called  by  the  Arabs  Bohr  Lut  or  Lot's  Sea, .lies  1300 
feet  below  sea  level,  and  is  47  miles  long  and  10  miles  across. 
It  is  shut  in  by  high,  barren  walls  of  rock,  and  is  justly  called 
the  Dead  Sea,  as  no  vegetation  is  visible  anywhere  near  it  and 
no  fish  can  live  in  it.  The  water  is  of  a  grayish  green  tint, 
not  quite  transparent,  and  it  contains  25  per  cent  of  salt.  It 
is  therefore  more  brackish  than  sea  water  and  of  a  greater 
specific  gravity  than  the  human  body.  The  lake  is  divided  into 
two  very  different  parts  by  a  promontory  stretching  out  from 
the  eastern  shore.  The  northerly  part  is  on  an  average  1100 
to  1300  feet  deep,  while  the  southern  part,  which  forms  about 
a  quarter  of  the  whole  lake,  is  only  13  to  16  feet  in  depth. 
This  smaller  part  appears  to  be  of  later  formation  than  the 
rest,  and  it  seems  probable  that  the  soil,  permeated  as  it  is 
with  resinous  substances,  was  at  some  period  set  on  fire,  possibly 
by  lightning,  and  it  gradually  burnt  itself  out.1 


1  The  subject  has  been  discussed  in  a  periodical  called  Gaa  (1897,  nos. 
7  and  8,  pp.  402,  etc. )  and  the  writers  of  the  articles  tend  to  ascribe  the 
present  state  of  the  lake  to  the  action  of  an  earthquake.  Cf.,  however, 
Natur  und  Offenbarung,  1900,  no.  3,  and  also  Elbert,  Entstehung  und 
Oeschichte  des  Toten  Meeres.  In  any  case  we  see  the  results  of  punitive 


THE    HOLY   LAND  11 

This  resulted  in  the  formation  of  a  depression  over  which 
the  water  of  the  northern  part  of  the  lake  poured.  It  would 
seem  that  the  water  acquired  its  extreme  saltness  only  after 
this  occurrence,  as  it  has  since  then  been  brought  into  contact 
with  the  bed  of  rock  salt  to  the  south  of  the  lake.  The  biblical 
account  of  the  catastrophe  is  given  in  Genesis  xix.  According  to 
it  four  towns,  Sodom,  Gomorrha,  Seboim  and  Adama,  stood  on 
a  fertile  plain  to  the  south  of  the  lake,  and  were  destroyed  in 
the  time  of  Abraham,  while  Segor,  a  smaller  city,  was  spared.1 

6.   NATURAL  PRODUCTS 

In  consequence  of  Israel's  want  of  faith  and  God's  curse, 
Palestine  is  at  the  present  time  barren  and  unproductive.  For- 
merly, however,  it  was  a  very  fruitful  country,  capable  of 
supporting  four  or  five  million  inhabitants,  whereas  now  it  has 
scarcely  800,000.2 

The  natural  causes  of  the  present  desolation  are :  the  destruc- 
tion of  forests,  which  has  caused  the  former  abundant  supply 
of  water  to  diminish  (Deut.  viii.  7) ; 3  the  numerous  wars  and 

action  on  God's  part,  as  recorded  in  Holy  Scripture.     Nature  is  God's 
instrument. 

1  Since  1900  a  steamer,  built  in  Hamburg  and  carrying  thirty-four 
passengers  besides  cargo,  has  been  plying  regularly  along  the  Dead  Sea, 
which  had  been  deserted  for  thousands  of  years.    It  has  opened  up  trade 
between  Jerusalem  and  Kerak,  the  old  capital  of  the  Moabites,  which 
has  a  population  of  1800  Christians  and  6000  Mahometans,  and  is  the 
only  town  of  any  commercial  importance  situated  east  of  the  Jordan. 

2  According   to   Fr.   Lie"vin,    and    also    Badeker-Benzinger,    Palastina, 
fifth  ed.,  Leipzig,  1900,  the  population  consists  of  about  440,000  Mahome- 
tans;   200,000  Jews,  mostly  immigrants  in  the  last  few  years;    50,000 
Christians,  half  of  whom  are  Catholics  and  the  other  half  Greeks  not 
Uniates;    and  the  remainder  includes  Armenians  and  Druses  and  a  few 
Protestants.     The   population  is   only  a  quarter   as   dense   as   that   of 
Germany. 

3  "  For  the  Lord  thy  God  will  bring  thee  into  a  good  land,  of  brooks 
and  of  waters,  and  of  fountains,  in  the  plains  of  which  and  the  hills  deep 
rivers  break  out."     Even  in  the  time  of  Esdras  and  Nehemias  the  high 
ground  must  still  have  been  covered  with  forests,  for  in  Nehemias  viii. 
15,  we  read  the  command  to  "  Go  forth  to  the  mount  and  fetch  branches 
of  olive,  and  branches  of  beautiful  wood."     When  forests  are  cut  down 
the  springs  and  brooks  dry  up,  the  banks  of  which  are  mentioned  in 
Leviticus  xxiii.  40,  as  the  places  where  the  willows  grow. 


12     HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF   THE   BIBLE 

devastations  with  which  the  country  was  harassed;  and  the 
Turkish  supremacy,  which  has  always  proved  hostile  to  progress. 
In  spite  of  all  this,  however,  Palestine  still  shows  traces  of 
great  fertility.1 

Palestine  is  poor  in  minerals.  There  are  some  iron  mines 
in  the  north,  and  rock  salt  is  found  in  the  south,  near  the 
Dead  Sea,  but  these  are  almost  all  the  mineral  products.  The 
vegetable  kingdom  is  abundantly  represented. 

At  the  time  when  the  Scriptures  were  written  the  natural 
fertility  of  the  soil  was  increased  by  the  extraordinary  care 
with  which  it  was  cultivated.  Plots  of  ground  were  protected 
against  wild  animals  by  hedges  and  walls  and  against  floods 
by  being  laid  out  in  terraces.  Artificial  means  of  irrigation 
were  everywhere  employed  (cisterns,  channels  and  ponds)  wher- 
ever the  natural  water  supply  was  deficient.  "Wheat  and  barley 
were  grown  in  great  quantities,  rye  and  oats  were  unknown. 
The  corn  surplus  was  so  large  that  much  could  be  exported,  and 
the  Phoenicians  especially  imported  from  Palestine  the  large 
amount  of  grain  that  they  required  (cf.  Acts  xii.  20).  Palestine 
was  very  rich  also  in  vineyards,  and  even  now  the  vines  often 
grow  to  the  height  of  trees  and  bear  bunches  of  grapes  weigh- 
ing several  pounds.  There  was  no  dearth  of  lentils  and  beans, 
and  flax  was  plentiful,  though  it  is  doubtful  whether  cotton 
was  cultivated.  Among  the  trees  with  foliage  may  be  mentioned 
the  fig,  the  olive,  palms,  pomegranate,  apple  (tappuach),  oak, 
terebinth,  acacia,  tamarisk  and  sycamore;  they  furnished  the 
ordinary  wood  used  for  building  purposes;  among  conifers  the 
cypress  and  the  cedar,  the  wood  of  the  latter  being  used  for 
buildings  of  the  highest  class.  Many  shrubs  abounded,  such 
as  the  oleander,  myrtle,  mandragora  and  hyssop. 

According  to  Leviticus  x.  and  xi.,  animals  were  divided  into 
four  classes, —  (1)  the  larger  land  animals,  (2)  water  crea- 
tures, (3)  birds,  (4)  other  animals. 

(1)  The  first  class  is  subdivided  into  cattle  (betiema),  i.e. 

1  The  sect  of  the  German  Templars  have  in  modern  times  succeeded 
in  raising  very  fine  crops  in  various  places;  e.g.,  near  Jaffa  and  Jerusa- 
lem. The  same  is  true  of  recent  Jewish  settlers  in  both  the  east  and  the 
west  of  the  country. 


THE   HOLY   LAND  13 

tame  domestic  animals,  and  beasts  of  the  field  (chajjath  liaarez), 
i.  e.  wild  creatures.  Of  the  domestic  animals,  oxen,  sheep  and 
goats  were  bred  in  great  numbers,1  so  that  every  year  many 
thousands  of  them  could  be  sacrificed  and  killed  for  food.  Cattle 
were  used  in  agriculture,  for  plowing,  for  threshing  out  the 
corn,  and  for  drawing  wagons.  Many  asses  were  kept,  intelligent 
animals,  on  which  people  generally  rode,  though  they  were  also 
employed  in  drawing  the  plow  and  in  working  the  larger  mills. 
Camels,  or  rather  dromedaries  with  one  hump  (animals  with 
two  humps  occur  only  in  the  heart  of  Asia),  served  then,  as 
now,  to  carry  merchandise  and  travelers  on  long  journeys. 
Horses  were  not  much  used  until  the  time  of  David.  Dogs 
were  generally  despised  as  savage  and  bloodthirsty  and  as  re- 
sembling wolves  (Ps.  Iviii.  7) ;  it  is  only  in  the  book  of  Tobias 
and  in  the  New  Testament  that  there  is  any  mention  of  dogs 
as  domestic  animals.  Swine  were  not  kept  at  all. 

Many  wild  animals  were  used  for  food,  such  as  stags,  ante- 
lopes or  gazelles,  and  ibexes.  The  hare  was  regarded  as  unclean. 
Mention  is  made  of  the  following  savage  beasts:  the  wild  boar, 
the  bear,  the  wolf,  the  lion,  the  panther,  the  hyena,  the  lynx 
and  the  jackal. 

(2)  Only  such  fish  were  eaten  as  had  fins  and  scales.     The 
Lake  of  Genesareth  abounded  in  fish  and  at  the  time  of  our 
Lord  many  of  the  people  in  that  neighborhood  lived  by  fishing. 
In  this  region  fish  served  as  the  usual  relish  eaten  with  bread 
(cf.  Matt.  xiv.  17). 

(3)  There  were  many  pigeons,  wood  pigeons  and  turtledoves 
in  Palestine    (Ezech.   vii.   16),  and  partridges,   swallows   and 
cranes  were  well  known;  hens  are  only  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament.    Birds  of  prey  were  numerous,  and  were  all  regarded 
as  unclean.    Birdcatching  was  common,  but  when  a  bird's  nest 
was  discovered  it  was  forbidden  to  take  with  the  young  ones  also 

1  In  spring  the  cattle  were  driven  out  to  pasture  and  left  out  during 
the  whole  summer,  until  the  approach  of  winter.  At  night  they  were 
collected  into  a  fold,  a  space  surrounded  by  a  low  wall,  at  the  entrance 
to  which  one  of  the  shepherds  kept  watch  all  night.  Such  folds  were 
often  very  large,  and  afforded  room  for  several  flocks  under  different 
shepherds.  Similes  from  pastoral  life  abound  in  Holy  Scripture,  and 
our  Lord  speaks  of  Himself  as  the  Good  Shepherd,  John  x. 


14     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

the  mother  bird    (Deut.  xxii.   6).     In  this  way  the  various 
species  were  preserved.1 

(4)  Other  creatures  are  divided  into  four  classes,  according 
to  Leviticus  xi.  20,  etc. :  (a)  animals  that  walk  upon  the  earth, 
such  as  the  weasel,  the  mouse  and  various  kinds  of  lizards;  (&) 
those  that  creep  on  their  belly,  such  as  worms  and  all  kinds 
of  snakes;  (c)  small  creatures  with  wings,  such  as  grasshoppers 
(four  varieties  of  which  are  mentioned  in  Lev.  xi.  22  as  edible), 
flies,  gnats,  wasps  and  bees;  the  latter  abounded,  although  no 
attention  was  paid  to  bee-keeping,  and  honey  was  frequently 
eaten;  (d)  small  creatures  with  many  feet,  such  as  beetles,  ants, 
spiders  and  scorpions. 


7.   PLAGUES  OF  COMMON  OCCURRENCE 

Under  this  heading  four  things  may  be  mentioned: 

1.  The  Samum,  a  hot  wind  that  prevails  in  the  desert  and 
is  dangerous  to  life.     It  is  injurious  owing  to  its  being  very 
hot  and  dry,  and  it  carries  a  quantity  of  fine  dust  with  it.    Men 
try  to  avoid  it  by  throwing  themselves  flat  on  the  ground,  as 
it  always  blows  a  few  feet  above  the  earth. 

2.  The  plague,  which  formerly  visited  Palestine  very  fre- 
quently and  caused  great  loss  of  life.     For  the  last  few  years 
the  Holy  Land  has  been  spared  this  visitation. 

3.  Leprosy,2  at  one  time  very  common  throughout  the  East, 
but  now  of  less  frequent  occurrence. 

4.  Locusts,  a  kind  of  grasshopper,  capable  of  breeding  in 
incredible  numbers,  so  as   often  to  overspread   and   devastate 
whole  districts.     Joel  ii.   3,  "The  land  is  like  a  garden  of 
pleasure  before  it,  and  behind  it  a  desolate  wilderness." 

1  In  Lev.  xi.  13-16,  and  Deut.  xiv.  12,  etc.,  the  following  birds  are  men- 
tioned as  unfit  for  food:    the  eagle,  the  griffin,  the  osprey,  the  kite,  the 
vulture,  the  raven,  the  ostrich,  the  owl,  the  sea  mew,  the  falcon,  the 
screech  owl,  the  cormorant,  the  ibis,  the  swan,  the  pelican,  the  purple 
water  hen,  the  stork,  the  heron,  the  lapwing  and  the  bat    (among  the 
ancients  the  bat  was  always  reckoned  as  a  bird). 

2  For  full  information  regarding  this  disease,  that  is  still  prevalent 
in  Palestine  and  elsewhere,  see  Die  Kath.  Hissionen,  1902,  1903. 


THE    HOLY   LAND  15 


8.   DWELLINGS,  FOOD  AND  CLOTHING 

1.  The  Patriarchs  lived  as  nomads  in  tents  resembling  those 
of  Bedouin  Arabs  at  the  present  time.     Covers  made  of  goats' 
hair  or  sometimes  of  linen  were  stretched  over  several  uprights 
and  fastened  down  to  the  earth  by  means  of  pegs  at  the  sides. 
As  a  rule  a  curtain  divided  each  tent  into  two  apartments,  one 
for  the  men  and  the  other  for  the  women  and  little  children; 
occasionally  there  was  a  third  apartment  for  the  servants.    Some- 
times the  women  occupied  a  separate  tent.     A  cluster  of  tents 
round  that  of  the  chieftain,  now  called  the  Sheikh,  formed  a 
village. 

In  mountainous  parts  of  the  country  caves  were  often  used  as 
dwellings,  or  artificial  caves  were  hollowed  in  the  rocks.  The 
Horites  to  the  east  of  the  Jordan  were  so  called  from  their 
living  in  caves  (c/ior  =  cave).  An  entrance  was  often  built  in 
front  of  the  cave,  so  that  the  dwelling  consisted  of  two  parts. 
The  house  of  the  Holy  Family  in  Nazareth  seems  to  have  been 
of  this  kind.  Caves  served  also  as  places  of  burial,  and  were 
then  closed  with  a  stone;  such  was  our  Lord's  grave.  Cf.  also 
Gen.  xxiii.  9 ;  Matt.  viii.  28 ;  John  xi.  39. 

2.  The  houses  of  the  settled  population  were  then  as  now 
built  of  clay  bricks,  which  were  seldom  baked,  but  only  dried 
in  the  sun;  hence  the  buildings  did  not  last  long.     The  houses 
of  wealthy  persons  were  built  of  hewn  stone.     The  beams  were 
mostly  of  sycamore  wood,  i.  e.  the  wood  of  the  fig-mulberry 
tree,  which  often  grows  to  an  enormous  size.     The  walls  were 
lime-washed,  and  the  floors  were  of  clay,  firmly  stamped  down. 
As  a  rule  a  house  had  but  one  story  and  a  flat  roof,  on  which 
the  occupants  could  walk  about  and  follow  their  employments, 
especially  in  the  cool  of  the  evening.    In  order  to  prevent  them 
from  falling  down,  it  was  often  necessary  to  have  a  parapet 
or  a  trellis  round  the  roof   (Deut.  xxii.  8).     Often  there  was 
an  upper  room  on  the  roof.    A  staircase  led  from  the  roof  down 
into  the  house  or  else  to  the  road  outside. 

The  door  of  the  house  was  secured  with  a  wooden  bolt  having 
openings  in  it,  into  which  a  large  key  fitted,  with  a  movable  iron 


16     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

tip,  so  that  the  bolt  could  be  moved  backwards  and  forwards. 
Above  the  door  a  text  of  Scripture  was  inscribed  (Deut.  vi.  9). 
The  windows  were  not  glazed,  for  glass  was  very  costly,  but 
they  were  latticed,  and  there  were  fewer  of  them  than  in  our 
houses.  One  indispensable  article  in  every  house  was  a  candle- 
stick,—  a  wooden  stand  supporting  a  lamp.  A  hand  mill  was 
to  be  found  in  almost  every  house. 

3.  The  food  of  the  people  consisted  chiefly  of  grain.    Wheat 
supplied  the  daily  bread,  and  only  the  poor  ate  barley  bread. 
Unripe  grain  was  often  cooked  in  oil,  but  as  a  rule  it  was  ground 
to  flour  and  baked  into  bread,  which  very  frequently  was  un- 
leavened, such  as  is  still  common  in  the  East.     The  loaves 
were  round  or  long  in  shape,  about  the  size  of  a  plate,  and  of 
the  thickness  of  a  finger.     They  were  not  cut  but  broken  at 
meals.    Bread  was  the  chief  article  of  food,  hence  in  the  Lord's 
Prayer  we  ask  for  "  our  daily  bread."    As  a  relish  the  Israelites 
often  ate  fruit  or  fried  fish,  although  there  was  no  lack  of  meat. 
Only  very  poor  people  or  strict  penitents  ate  locusts  (Lev.  xi.  22 ; 
Matt.  iii.  4). 

The  ordinary  beverage  was  water.  The  dearth  of  water  in 
the  East  causes  a  draught  of  fresh  water  to  be  regarded  as  a 
great  boon,  hence  a  special  reward  is  promised  to  the  giver  of 
it  (Matt.  x.  42;  xxv.  42).  As  the  water  was  seldom  quite 
fresh,  but  drawn  from  cisterns,  the  common  people  in  summer 
quenched  their  thirst  (Num.  vi.  3;  Euth  ii.  9)  with  a  sour 
drink  (chomez)  made  from  dates,  into  which  they  dipped  their 
bread.  The  upper  classes  drank  wine  (jajin],  which  was  no 
doubt  mixed  with  water.1  They  had  also  an  artificial  wine 
(schekar,  o-itcepa,  sicera)  prepared  by  fermentation  from  grain, 
fruit  or  honey,  with  the  addition  of  spices. 

4.  They  usually  took  two  meals  daily,  at  noon  and  in  the 
evening.    The  latter  meal  seems  to  have  been  the  more  impor- 
tant, as  the  solemn  Paschal  supper  had  to  be  celebrated  at 
night  (the  meal  at  which  the  Holy  Eucharist  was  instituted)  ; 
also  the  wedding  feasts  were  held  in  the  evening  (Matt.  xxv. 

1  The  Greeks  and  Romans  drank  wine  much  diluted  with  water. 
Vi/num  temperatum  consisted  of  one  part  of  wine  to  three  parts  of  water. 


THE   HOLY   LAND  17 

1-13).1  Both  before  and  after  a  meal  it  was  customary  to 
wash  the  hands.  In  early  times  people  sat  at  table  (Judges  xix. 
6:  "They  sat  down  together  and  ate  and  drank"),  but  after- 
wards it  became  the  fashion  to  recline  on  cushions,2  leaning  on 
the  left  arm,  and  using  the  right  to  carry  the  food  to  the  mouth. 
The  feet,  that  were  of  course  bare,  were  stretched  out  at  the 
back. 

5.  The  clothing  worn  by  the  Israelites  was  commonly  a  tunic 
(IcetTionetJi,  ^m6z>,  tunica)  with  a  cloak  or  upper  garment 
(beged)  over  it.  The  tunic  was  made  of  linen  or  woolen  cloth 
and  reached  to  the  knees;  it  had  very  short  sleeves  or  none 
at  all.  A  coat  that  came  down  to  the  ankles  and  wrists  was 
considered  a  festival  garment  (kethoneth  passim ,  Gen.  xxxvii.  3). 
The  tunic  was  held  in  place  by  a  girdle  round  the  waist.  Over 
it  was  worn  the  cloak,  a  square  piece  of  cloth,  which  frequently 
served  also  as  a  bed  covering.  At  its  four  corners  were  tassels 
fastened  to  a  blue  cord  (arba  kanphoth  =  fringes.  Num.  xv. 
38).  The  feet  were  shod  with  sandals,  and  a  band  formed  the 
headgear;  women  wore  a  veil.  Isaias  speaks  of  the  vanity  of 
women  in  dress  (iii.  16-23).  "The  daughters  of  Sion  are 
haughty,  and  have  walked  with  stretched-out  necks,  and  wanton 
glances  of  their  eyes,  and  made  a  noise  as  they  walked  with  their 
feet  and  moved  in  a  set  pace.  .  .  .  The  Lord  will  take  away  the 
ornaments  of  shoes  and  little  moons,  and  chains  and  necklaces, 
and  bracelets,  and  bonnets,  and  bodkins,  and  ornaments  of 
the  legs  and  tablets,  and  sweet  balls,  and  earrings,  and  rings, 
and  jewels  hanging  on  the  forehead,  and  changes  of  apparel,  and 
short  cloaks,  and  fine  linen  and  crisping  pins,  and  looking- 
glasses,  and  lawns,  and  headbands,  and  fine  veils." 

The  present  state  of  the  native  population  is  very  depressing. 
Their  dwellings  are  mostly  mud  huts  with  flat  roofs,  and  it 
is  only  through  the  narrow  doorway  that  light  and  air  can 
penetrate  into  them.  The  fellah  generally  owns  a  small  plot 

1  The  Greeks  and  Romans  also  took  their  chief  meal   (Selirvov,  cena) 
in  the  evening.     The  midday  repast  was  a  lighter  meal,  more  like  our 
breakfast  or  luncheon,  hence  it  was  called  prandium,  i.  e.,  early  meal 
(irpav  —  Trpunjv,  early,  connected  with  vpul). 

2  Triclinia,  so  called  because  there  was  generally  room  for  three  per- 
sons.   These  couches  had  no  backs. 


18     HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

of  land,  on  which  he  grows  wheat,  barley  and  a  few  vegetables. 
He  may  possess  also  some  olive  and  fig  trees,  and  perhaps  some 
sheep,  goats  and  fowls,  an  ass,  a  horse  or  a  camel.  The  work 
of  a  fellahin  family  is  divided  between  the  husband,  who  looks 
after  the  land,  and  the  wife,  who  does  everything  else.  Thus 
the  chief  burden  falls  on  the  weaker  sex.  The  woman  has  to 
provide  the  meals,  which,  simple  as  they  are,  involve  fetching 
water,  preparing  fuel  by  mixing  chaff  with  animals'  dung, 
grinding  the  corn  at  the  handmill,  and  making  and  baking  the 
bread.  She  has  moreover  to  make  all  the  clothing,  and  carry 
a  child  on  her  back  while  she  does  her  work. 

The  meals  are  very  simple;  the  chief  article  of  food  is 
bread,  mostly  unleavened  and  newly  baked,  and  as  a  relish 
a  few  olives  or  onions,  figs  or  grapes;  sometimes  rice  with  sour 
milk.  Meat  is  seldom  seen.  The  ordinary  beverage  is  water, 
generally  drawn  from  a  cistern,  and  only  on  festive  occasions 
is  a  cup  of  coffee  produced.  Amusements  as  we  understand 
them  do  not  exist,  with  the  sole  exception  of  tobacco  smoking. 
No  one  can  be  called  well  to  do,  although  so  very  little  is  re- 
quired to  maintain  a  family.  The  chief  reason  for  this  deplor- 
able state  of  affairs  is  that  the  taxation  is  very  heavy.  The 
tenth  part  of  all  that  the  land  produces  is  claimed  by  the  govern- 
ment. For  every  sheep,  goat  and  pig  three  piasters  (about  12 
cents)  must  be  paid  yearly,  and  in  addition  there  is  a  land  tax 
of  four  piasters  (16  cents)  on  every  piece  of  land  worth  1000 
piasters  ($40.00).  All  non-Mahometans  have  to  purchase  exemp- 
tion from  military  service,  and  according  to  Lievin  each  man 
has  to  pay  yearly  38  piasters  ($1.50).  Besides  all  this  there 
are  tolls  on  bridges  and  roads,  customs  duties,  death  duties, 
trade  taxes,  etc.  Moreover  the  manner  of  collecting  the  taxes 
makes  them  more  oppressive;  all  taxes,  but  especially  the 
tax  on  land  produce,  are  generally  leased  —  the  man  who  ac- 
cepts the  contract  paying  a  fixed  sum  to  the  government  and 
then  collecting  the  tax  for  himself,  in  doing  which  he  is 
often  assisted  by  armed  men,  and  tales  of  atrocities  are  by 
no  means  uncommon.  The  fellah  is  often  obliged  to  borrow 
money  from  usurers,  who  charge  from  100  to  200  per  cent 
interest.  Turkish  officials  seldom  draw  a  fixed  salary  with  any 


THE    HOLY   LAND  19 

regularity,  and  each,  tries  to  wring  money  out  of  his  unhappy 
subordinates  to  make  up  for  his  own  arrears  of  salary.  In 
this  way  there  is  no  end  to  the  extortions. 

The  European  immigrants,  who  are  now  fairly  numerous, 
are  in  a  far  better  position,  and  are  engaged  in  trade  and  in 
opening  up  means  of  communication.  Their  profits  increase 
rapidly.  The  chief  exports  are  oranges,  oil  and  wine,  while 
every  kind  of  European  produce  is  imported.  It  is  hoped  that 
considerable  impulse  to  progress  in  Palestine  and  Syria  will 
be  caused  by  the  Anatolian  railway,  which,  when  completed, 
will  serve  as  a  connection  between  the  countries  near  the 
Euphrates  and  those  of  the  West. 

9.   INHABITANTS  BEFORE  THE  ISRAELITES 

Before  God's  chosen  people  settled  in  Palestine,  the  land  had 
already  had  Semitic  and  afterwards  Chamitic  inhabitants.  Tribes 
of  Chanaanite  origin  had  come  into  the  country  possibly  from 
the  northwest,  but  more  probably  from  the  east,  and  had  mingled 
with  the  earlier  Semitic  population  and  had  adopted  its  lan- 
guage and  lost  their  own.  Abraham  and  his  descendants  like- 
wise lost  their  Aramaic  dialect  and  acquired  that  of  the  country, 
which  on  their  account  was  designated  Hebrew. 

To  the  old  Semitic  inhabitants  of  Palestine  belonged  the 
following  tribes:  (1)  the  Pherezites,  mentioned  in  Gen.  xiii.  7, 
as  living  near  Bethel;  (2)  the  Eaphaites  (Rephaim  =  giants),  in 
the  district  east  of  the  Jordan  (Gen.  xiv.  5) ;  (3)  the  Enakites 
(Anaqim  =  long-necked),  who  were  also  men  of  great  stature, 
living  near  Hebron  in  the  south.  They  were  to  a  great  extent 
exterminated  by  Josue  (Num.  xiii.  22,  28;  Jos.  xi.  21);  (4) 
the  Hevites  or  Awites  ('Avvim,  Deut.  ii.  23),  who  came  into 
conflict  with  the  Philistines  and  were  subdued  by  them.  They 
seem  not  to  have  been  akin  to  the  Philistines,  but  to  have  been 
of  the  same  race  as  the  Hevites  of  Chanaan  (see  p.  21);  (5) 
the  Kenites  (qenim,  Gen.  xv.  19),  who  lived  in  the  southeast,  but 
now  and  then  were  in  alliance  with  the  Amalakites,  whose 
lands  lay  still  farther  south  (I  Kings,  xv.  6).  To  the  same  race 
belonged  the  Eechabites,  a  small  tribe  who  lived  by  breeding 


20     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

cattle  (they  are  mentioned  in  Jeremias  xxxv.),  and  also  perhaps 
the  Cenezites  and  the  Cedmonites  (Gen.  xv.  19).  Melchisedech, 
king  of  Salem,  was  undoubtedly  a  Semite,  but  his  lineage  is 
unknown. 

The  greater  part  of  the  country,  however,  before  the  coming 
of  the  Israelites,  was  occupied  by  the  Chanaanites,  descendants 
of  the  fourth  son  of  Cham.  Chanaan  had  eleven  sons  (Gen. 
x.  15-18),  and  the  tribes  descended  from  six  of  them  settled 
along  the  seacoast  in  the  northwest.  The  Greeks  called  them 
Phoenicians  from  the  color  of  their  skin  (fyoiviices,  from  $oivi%, 
reddish  purple).  The  tribes  descended  from  the  other  five 
sons  settled  in  Palestine  itself.  They  were : 

1.  The  Hethites,  descended  from  Cheth,  Chanaan's  second 
son.     They  lived  in  the  south  of  the  country.     It  was  from 
them  that  Abraham  bought  a  plot  of  land  as  a  burial  place 
(Gen.  xxiii.).     Like  the  Amorites  they  spread  over  the  Holy 
Land,   and  founded  a  great  empire   in  the  north,   with  two 
principal  cities,  Kades  on  the  Orontes  and  Karkemisch  on  the 
Euphrates/    The  Hethites  are  compared  as  warriors  with  the 
Egyptians  in  IV  Kings,  vii.  6,  and  in  early  Egyptian  records 
there  is  mention  of  wars  between  the  Egyptians  and  the  Heta 
or  Hethites.     Barneses  II   (about  1350),  called  by  Herodotus 
Sesostris,  was  forced  to  ratify  peace  with  them  by  marrying 
a  Hethite  princess.    The  Hethites  were  a  source  of  danger  to  the 
Assyrians   also,   until   Sargon   took   Karkemisch  in   717,   and 
destroyed  their  power.     That  they  were  of  Chanaanite  origin 
is  proved  by  their  worshiping  Baal  and  Astarte.1 

2.  The  Jebusites,   descended  from   Jebus,   Chanaan's   third 
son.     They  lived  in  and  round  Jerusalem,  which  was  at  that 
time  called  Jebus. 

3.  The  Amorites,  descended  from  Amor,  the  fourth  son,  are 
mentioned  as  living  in  the  south,  near  the  Dead  Sea,  but  they 
settled  also  far  to  the  north,  in  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan. 

4.  The  Gergesites  were  descended  from  Girgas,  the  fifth  son 
of  Chanaan;  their  abode  is  unknown. 

1  See  Sayce,  "  Fresh  Light  from  Ancient  Monuments,"  pp.  96-99.  It  is 
possible  that  the  Hethites  ought  to  be  identified  with  the  Hyksos.  Sayce, 
however,  regards  the  Hyksos  as  Western  Semites. 


CANAAN, 

AS  DIVIDED  AMONG 
t— THE  TWELVE  TRIBES 

English  Miles  Zareplmt 


The  Cities  of  Refuge  are 
underlined  tfi  us  Golan 


^     E   P,H   R  A  I 


THE    HOLY   LAND  21 

5.  The  Hevites,  descended  from  Chev,  the  sixth  son,  lived 
in  the  north,  near  Lebanon. 

Besides  the  Semitic  and  Chanaanite  tribes,  the  Philistines 
had  settled  in  the  south,  before  the  time  of  Abraham  ;*  they  were 
a  Chamitic  people  (Gen.  x.  14;  xx.  2,  etc.)  that  had  migrated 
from  Kaphtor.2  Their  chief  towns  were  Gaza,  Asdod  (Azotus), 
Ascalon,  Gath  and  Accaron. 

All  these  tribes  were  governed  by  rules  of  their  own;  almost 
every  district  had  a  king. 

10.   PALESTINE  AS  DIVIDED  AMONG  THE  ISRAELITES 

When  the  Israelites  entered  the  Promised  Land  under  Josue, 
the  previous  inhabitants  were  either  conquered  or  driven  out, 
and  some  were  exterminated  by  God's  command  as  a  punishment 
for  their  sins.  Then  the  country  was  divided  among  the  twelve 
tribes  as  their  possession.  The  tribe  of  Levi,  whose  duty  it 
was  to  attend  to  the  worship  of  God,  received  no  land,  but  the 
members  of  that  tribe  were  distributed  over  the  whole  country 
and  occupied  forty-eight  towns.  The  tribe  of  Joseph  received 
two  portions,  as  Ephraim  and  Manasses  were  adopted  by  Jacob 
(Gen.  xlviii.  5).  (I)  The  territory  assigned  to  the  tribe  of 
Juda  lay  in  the  south.  (2)  "Westward  of  it  was  that  belonging 
to  Simeon,  the  weakest  of  the  tribes.  (3)  To  the  north  of  Juda 
lay  Benjamin.  (4)  the  tribe  of  Dan,  that  was  very  numerous, 
lived  at  first  between  Juda  and  the  Philistines,  but  as  its  terri- 
tory was  too  small,  and  constant  fighting  was  required  for  its 
defense,  part  of  the  tribe  migrated  northwards  and  settled  near 
the  town  of  Lais,  which  was  thenceforth  called  Dan.  (5) 
Ephraim,  a  large  tribe,  occupied  the  center  of  the  country. 
(6)  To  the  north  of  Ephraim  dwelt  half  the  tribe  of  Manasses, 

1  In    the    Septuagint    the   name    Philistine    is    rendered    'A\\6(f>v\oi, 
strangers,  so  possibly  it  ought  to  be  connected  with  the  Ethiopian  word 
falasa,  to  travel  or  wander.     "Pheleschet"  is  therefore  the  strangers' 
land,  and  if  this  be  correct  the  Philistines  did  not  belong  to  the  origi- 
nal Semitic  or  Chanaanite  population. 

2  Kaphtor  was  a  strip  of  coast  to  the  east  of  the  delta  of  the  Nile. 
It  must  not  be  identified  with  Crete,  nor  with  Cappadocia,  as  is  done  in 
the  Septuagint  and  the  Vulgate  versions  of  Amos  ix.  7.    The  Philistines 
certainly  came  from  Egypt. 


22     HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

the  other  half  having  been  left  by  Moses  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  country  east  of  the  Jordan.  (7)  The  tribe  of  Issachar  lived 
round  the  plain  of  Esdrelon.  (8)  The  tribe  of  Zabulon  settled 
to  the  west  of  the  Lake  of  Genesareth.  (9)  The  tribe  of  Aser 
lived  near  Mount  Carmel.  (10)  Nephtali  occupied  the  north- 
ernmost part  of  the  country.  (11)  Euben  dwelt  in  the  south 
of  the  district  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  (12)  Gad  in  the  north. 

In  the  period  following  the  captivity  this  division  of  the 
country  fell  into  disuse,  as  the  majority  of  those  who  returned 
belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Juda,  and  thenceforth  the  whole  nation 
became  known  as  Jews. 

At  the  time  of  our  Lord,  under  the  Eoman  government,  the 
land  west  of  the  Jordan  was  divided  into  three  parts;  viz., 
Judaea,  Samaria  and  Galilee.  The  country  east  of  the  Jordan 
was  called  Peraea. 

11.   DESCRIPTION  OF  PLACES 
I.   Judcea 

1.  Jerusalem,1  formerly  called  Salem,  then  Jebus,  then  2Elia 
Capitolina  (under  the  Eoman  Emperor  Hadrian)  and  now  El 
Kuds,  the  holy  (its  Mahometan  name),  is  situated  on  an  uneven 
slope,  divided  from  northwest  to  southeast  by  a  depression, 
which  Josephus  calls  the  Tyropceon,  and  surrounded  by  valleys 
on  the  north,  south  and  west.2 

1  DHEftV  =  either  "  vision  of  peace  "  or  "  foundation  of  peace,"  ac- 
cording to  the  derivation  of  jeru  from  a  verb  meaning  "  to  see  "  or  from 
one  meaning  "  to  found."  In  the  hymn  Ccelestis  urbs  Jerusalem,  beata 
pacis  visio  the  former  derivation  is  accepted.  The  dual  form  seems  to 
refer  to  the  upper  and  lower  cities.  As  early  as  1400  B.  c.,  in  the  cunei- 
form inscriptions  of  Tell  el  Amarna,  the  name  of  the  town  was  Urusalem. 
The  Assyrian  form  is  Urusalimmu. 

2  Upon  two  ridges  of  unequal  height, 
That  front  each  other,  stands  Jerusalem, 
Through  which  there  runs  a  narrow  vale,  whose  site 
Divides  the  town  in  two,  and  severs  them. 
Three  sides  a  steep  ascent  the  town  defends, 
But  on  the  fourth  you  go,  nor  seem  to  rise, 
And  this  plain  side,  which  toward  the  north  extends, 
By  loftiest  ramparts  more  defended  is. 

TOBQU.  TASSO,  Jerus.  Delivered,  III,  55,  trans.  K.  James. 


THE    HOLY   LAND  23 

The  town  originally  did  not  extend  beyond  Mount  Sion  on 
the  southwest,  and  consisted  of  the  stronghold  of  Sion  and  the 
old  city  clustered  about  it.  It  was  here  that  David  dwelt. 
Solomon  enlarged  the  town  and  built  the  Temple,  which  occupied 
a  large  area  on  the  low  hill  called  Moria,  situated  northeast 
of  Sion  and  due  north  of  Ophel.1 

After  the  captivity  the  second  Temple  was  erected  on  the  same 
site,  and  the  restored  city  retained  its  former  limits.  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  built  a  fortress  to  the  north  of  the  Temple,  on  the 
Hill  of  Akra  (II  Mach.  iv.  12),  in  order  to  dominate  the  Temple. 
Eound  this  fortress  a  new  quarter  of  the  town  gradually  arose, 
and  as  it  was  on  a  lower  level  than  Sion,  it  was  known  as  the 
Lower  City.2 

Herod  I,  who  had  a  mania  for  building,  effected  great  changes 
in  the  fortress  of  Sion,  the  Temple  and  Akra,  which  he  called 
Antonia.  It  was  here  that  our  Saviour  was  brought  before 

1  Recent  explorers  have  sought  Mount  Sion  in  the  east  of  the  city, 
though  this  is  contrary  to  tradition,  their  reason  being  that  we  often 
read  that  the  Lord  dwelleth  on  Sion,  and  this  must  refer  to  the  hill  on 
which  the  Temple  stood.    The  periodical  entitled  Das  HI.  Land  (Cologne, 
Oct.  1,  1896,  p.  77)  contains,  however,  the  following  important  informa- 
tion :  "  The  most  recent  discovery  in  the  topography  of  Jerusalem  is  that 
of  the  steps  of  the  city  of  David.     It  is  scarcely  possible  to  doubt  that 
these  are  the  steps  of  the  city  mentioned  in  Nehemias  iii.  15  and  xii.  36. 
These  newly  discovered  steps  are  on  the  southwest  hill,  not  on  the  south- 
east, but  where  the  former  hill  slopes  down  in  an  easterly  direction 
towards  the  Tyropoeon,  on  the    west  side  of  the  valley.    They  could  only 
lead  up  to  the  southwest  hill.     Hitherto  about  fifteen  steps  have  been 
found.  .  .  .  The  problem  of  Mount  Sion  is  therefore  approaching  its  solu- 
tion, and  in  all  probability  the  traditional  Sion  will  win  the  day,  and  the 
theory  of  the  southeast  hill  will  be  proved  erroneous."  —  If  we  occasion- 
ally read  that  God  dwelleth  in  Sion,  Sion  stands  for  Jerusalem,  just  as 
the  Vatican  often  means  Rome,  and  the  Seine  Paris.    The  name  is  also 
used  figuratively  for  the  theocratic  Jerusalem.     (The  steps  mentioned  in 
Neh.  xii.  36,  can  hardly  be  the  same  as  those  referred  to  in  iii.  15,  but 
were  steps  in  the  city  wall.)     Gatt,  a  missionary  in  Gaza,  who  knows 
Jerusalem  very  thoroughly,  in  a  work  on  the  hills  of  Jerusalem  defends 
the  traditional  position  of  Sion,  and  Riickert  does  the  same.    In  a  recent 
work  Gatt  aims  at  justifying  the  traditional  view  and  at  establishing  it 
more  firmly. 

2  According  to  Mommert   (Topographic  des  alien  Jerusalems,  Leipz., 
1903),  an  upper  and  a  lower  city  existed  as  early  as  the  time  of  Josue. 
Mommert  does  not  locate  David's  stronghold  in  the  upper  city  of  Sion, 
but  on  the  Hill  of  Akra,  which  he  thinks  was  included  with  the  upper 
city  at  a  very  early  period  under  the  general  name  of  Sion. 


24     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

Pilate,  and  from  this  place  of  His  condemnation  He  carried 
the  cross  to  the  place  of  His  execution  outside  the  city.1 

To  the  north  of  this  fortress,  on  the  hill  Bezetha  and  also 
to  the  west  of  it,  a  new  quarter  has  gradually  sprung  up,  called 
the  suburb  or  new  town. 

Jerusalem  as  it  now  is,  situated  in  a  barren,  rocky  region,  has  a  deso- 
late and  lifeless  appearance,  and  makes  a  gloomy  impression  upon  those 
who  behold  it.  The  words  of  Jeremias'  lamentation  are  even  more  ap- 
plicable now  than  they  were  after  the  Babylonian  devastation:  "How 
doth  the  city  sit  solitary  that  was  full  of  people!  "  (Lam.  i.  1.)  The 
population  has,  however,  increased  rapidly  in  the  last  few  years,  and 
has  risen  from  20,000  to  66,000  (1905).  Of  these  45,000  are  Jews,  8000 
Mahometans,  6000  Greeks  (Orthodox  Church),  2500  Latins,  950  Arme- 
nians, 800  Protestants,  250  Uniate  Greeks,  150  Copts,  100  Abyssinians, 
100  Jacobite  Syrians,  50  Uniate  Syrians  and  a  few  Maronites.  During 
the  nineteenth  century  twelve  Catholic  churches  and  several  chapels  were 
built  in  Jerusalem,  but  of  the  thirty  existing  Catholic  places  of  worship 
only  three  are  of  ancient  origin;  viz.,  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher, 
St.  Anne's,  and  the  Grotto  of  the  Agony;  the  rest  have  all  been  built 
since  1840.  (The  schismatic  Greeks  possess  thirty- four  churches  and 
chapels,  the  Russians  five,  all  newly  built,  and  the  Protestants  four. 
Cf.  Das  HI.  Land,  1897,  p.  37.)  Since  1892  there  has  been  a  railway  con- 
necting Jerusalem  with  Jaffa.  At  the  present  time  the  still  existing 
"  Pools  of  Solomon,"  which  he  made  to  the  south  of  Bethlehem,  are  being 
reconstructed  so  as  to  supply  again  the  capital  with  water.  The  water- 
courses will  follow  the  same  lines  as  they  did  three  thousand  years  ago. 

The  following  places  in  and  near  Jerusalem  are  familiar 
to  us,  as  their  names  occur  in  Holy  Scripture : 

(a)  Golgotha,  i.  e.  place  of  a  skull  (golgoiha  =  golgoltlia,,  the 
Aramaic  form  of  the  Hebrew  word  gulgoletli.  The  Evangelists 
translate  the  name  as  icpaviov  TOTTO?  =  calvarice  locus) .  The 
name  is  certainly  not  derived  from  skulls  of  executed  male- 
factors. They  would  not  have  been  allowed  to  lie  about,  as 
contact  with  a  corpse  or  any  part  of  one  caused  legal  uncleanness. 

1  On  this  subject  Father  Barnabas  Meistermann  wrote  a  well-grounded 
argument  in  favor  of  the  Catholic  tradition  regarding  the  holy  places  in 
Jerusalem.  The  same  religious  has  written  very  careful  monographs  on 
the  grave  of  Our  Lady,  on  Thabor,  Emmaus,  Arimathea,  and  the  home  of 
John  the  Baptist  (Atw  =  Karim  St.  John  in  the  mountains).  Several 
writers  have  attempted  to  prove  that  by  Pilate's  Pretorium  is  meant, 
not  the  fortress  Antonia,  but  Herod's  palace  on  Sion.  If  this  were  cor- 
rect, would  not  the  tradition  regarding  the  Way  of  the  Cross  have  to  be 
abandoned  1 


THE   HOLY   LAND  25 

The  spot  must  have  borne  some  resemblance  to  a  skull,  and 
have  been  bare  and  somewhat  raised.  It  was  here  that  our 
Saviour  redeemed  us  by  His  death  on  the  Cross.  At  that  time 
the  place  was  outside  the  city,  and,  according  to  an  unbroken 
tradition,  lay  to  the  northwest  of  it.  After  our  Lord's  death 
Jerusalem  was  extended  in  this  direction  and  so  Golgotha  came 
to  be  included  within  the  city  wall.  Hence  the  Church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulcher,  which  contains  the  place  of  the  Crucifixion, 
is  now  within  Jerusalem.1 

From  the  point  of  view  of  accuracy  the  question  may  be  asked  whether, 
as  our  Lord  was  crucified  "without  the  gate"  (Heb.  xiii.  12;  cf.  Matt, 
xxvii.  33,  John  xix.  15),  the  city  wall  at  that  time  included  or  excluded 
the  site  of  the  present  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher.  Three  walls  may 
be  considered: 

( 1 )  David's  wall,  which  only  surrounded  Sion,  and  this,  according 
to  tradition,  was  the  western  hill. 

(2)  The  wall  of  Ezechias  and  Manasses,  restored  by  Nehemias  after 
the  Captivity,  and  still  forming  the  city  wall  in  our  Lord's  time.     It 
branched  off  from  the  earlier  wall  and  surrounded  the  city  on  the  west, 
north  and  east,  terminating  at  the  Temple. 

( 3 )  Herod  Agrippa's  wall,  begun  about  43  A.  D.     The  second  wall  is 
the  one  that  we  have  to  consider.    Those  who  defend  the  literal  accuracy 
of  the  text  maintain  that  it  was  possible  and  even  probable  for  the  place 
of  crucifixion  to  have  been  outside  this  wall.    Their  opponents  hold  that 
the  second  wall  must  have  enclosed  the  site  of  the  church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulcher,  as  Jerusalem  was  then  very  populous.    The  difficulty  has  now 
been  solved,  and  the  question  decided  in  favor  of  the  text.     In  1883  re- 
mains of  the  second  wall  were  discovered,  showing  quite  plainly  that  it 
did  not  include  the  site  of  the  church.     (Keppler,  Wanderungen,  etc.,  im 
Oriente,  208.) 

(&)  On  the  southern  plateau  of  Mount  Sion,  outside  the 
present  Sion  Gate  and  not  far  from  the  Christian  cemeteries, 
is  a  huge  building  containing  a  mosque,  in  which,  according 
to  Mahometan  tradition,  King  David  is  buried.  There  is  proba- 
bly no  truth  in  this  tradition. 

Christians,  on  the  other  hand,  assert  that  the  room  where 
the  Last  Supper  was  eaten  used  to  be  here,  and  tradition  iden- 
tifies the  place  further  with  the  room  where  our  risen  Saviour 

1  Mommert  has  proved  beyond  all  question  that  Constantino's  basil- 
ica  contained  our  Lord's  sepulcher,  Golgotha  with  a  church  called  the 
Martyrion  on  it,  the  chapel  of  Saint  Helena  and  the  Finding  of  the 
Cross. 


26     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF   THE  BIBLE 

appeared  to  His  Apostles  in  Jerusalem,  and  where  the  Holy 
Ghost  came  down  upon  them.  Finally  we  are  told  that  it  was 
in  this  neighborhood  that  Mary,  the  mother  of  our  Lord,  lived 
and  died,  for  which  reason  the  space  to  the  north  of  the  above- 
mentioned  building  has  been  called  the  Dormitio  &.  M.  V.  It 
was  acquired  in  the  autumn  of  1898  by  the  German  Emperor 
William  II,  who  presented  it  to  the  German  Catholics,  and  a 
church  and  a  Benedictine  Monastery  have  been  erected  on  this 
site.1 

It  is  certain  that  from  the  very  earliest  times  of  Christianity 
until  1551  there  was  a  church  here,  Sancta  Sion,  the  original 
parent  church  of  the  world.2 

(c)  The  Mount  of  Olives   (har  Jiassethim),  so  called  from 
the  numerous  olive  trees  with  which  it  was  formerly  covered; 
now  only  a  few  remain.    It  lies  to  the  east  of  the  town,  about 
a  quarter  of  an  hour's  walk  from  it. 

(d)  Between  the  town  and  the  Mount  of   Olives  lies  the 
Valley  of  Josaphat  with  the  brook  Cedron  (Kidrori).  ^The  name 
Josaphat    (i.  e.  the  Lord  judgeth)    seems  to  be  very  ancient, 
although  its  use  cannot  be  actually  traced  farther  back  than 
to  the  time  of  Eusebius  and  Saint  Jerome.    The  Cedron  (i.  e.  the 
dark  or  cloudy)  receives  water  only  from  rains;   its  source  has 

1  The  monastery  was  given  over  to  the  German  Benedictines  on  March 
21,  1906;   the  church  was  opened  in  April,  1910. 

2  Of  sources  of  information  regarding  the  history  of  this  site  we  men- 
tion as  very  important  the  following:    Diekamp,  Hippolytos  v.  Theben, 
Miinster,  1898,  p.  96,  etc.;    Zahn,  Dormitio  s.  virginis  u.  das  Haus  des 
Joh.  Marcus  (Neue  kirchl.  Ztschr.,  X,  5)  ;    Lagrange,  La  dormition  de  la 
s.  vierge  et  la  maison  de  Jean-Marc,  in  the  Revue  biblique,  1899,  IV,  589. 
It  may  be  assumed  that  the  house  of  John  Mark's  mother,  where  Peter 
took  refuge   (Acts  xii.  12),  is  identical  with  the  room  of  the  Last  Sup- 
per, the  room  where  our  Lord  appeared  to  the  Apostles,  and  the  room 
where  the  Holy  Ghost  descended  upon  them;    it  is  possible  that  Our 
Lady  too  sought  shelter  there.     Nirschl  opposes  the  theory,  based  on 
K.  Emmerich's  visions,  that  Mary  died  and  was  buried  in  Ephesus.    We 
may,  however,  very  well  believe  that  she  joined  Saint  John  there  and  re- 
mained there  for  some  time,  as  is  related  in  the  visions  of  K.  Emmerich. 
J.  Niessen,  in  a  work  entitled  Panagia  Kapuli  (Dtilmen,  1906),  upholds 
the  unsatisfactory  theory  that  Mary  died  at  Ephesus.     (Panagia  Kapuli 
=  the  Gate  of  the  B.  Virgin,  is  a  little  house  situated  to  the  south  of  the 
ruins  of  Ephesus.)     Bardenhewer  and  Liibeck  do  not  agree  with  Niessen 
on  this  point. 


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THE    HOLY   LAND  27 

long  been  dry.  Its  course  begins  near  Jerusalem  and  its  mouth 
is  in  the  Dead  Sea,  but  usually  the  river  bed  is  quite  dry. 

(e)  Gethsemane  (the  oil-press)  was  a  lonely  farm  on  the 
western  foot  of  the  Mount  of  Olives,  beyond  the  brook  Cedron. 
Beside  it  was  a  garden,  whither  Jesus  withdrew  before  His 
Passion. 

(/)  The  Valley  of  Hinnom  is  to  the  south  of  Jerusalem. 
The  depression  begins  in  the  west  and  continues  round  Sion, 
terminating  in  the  southeast  at  the  village  and  spring  of  Siloa, 
and  joining  the  Cedron  Valley.  It  was  here  that  the  idolatrous 
Israelites  once  offered  their  children  to  Moloch.  From  the 
name  gehinnom  the  word  gehenna,  hell,  has  been  formed,  and 
in  later  times  the  Jews,  mindful  of  the  fires  of  Moloch  and 
the  shrieks  of  the  victims,  applied  the  name  of  this  abhorred 
spot  to  the  place  of  suffering  of  the  damned.1 

(g)  On  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Mount  of  Olives  lay  the  little 
villages  of  Bethphage  (house  of  figs)  and  Bethany  (beth  anija 
=  place  of  low  ground),  both  familiar  to  us  in  the  life  of 
Christ. 

2.  Bethlehem.2  This  little  town,  the  birthplace  of  David 
and  of  Christ,  lies  two  hours'  journey  to  the  south  of  Jerusalem, 
and  is  situated  on  the  northern  slope  of  a  hill  running  east 
and  west.  The  Grotto  of  the  Nativity  lies  to  the  east,  at  a 
little  distance  from  the  town.  Above  it  a  church  has  been 
built,  and  there  is  a  monastery  near  it. 

The  latter  is  divided  into  three  parts,  one  of  which  belongs  to  the 
Latins,  one  to  the  schismatic  Greeks  and  the  third  to  the  Armenians. 
The  Catholics  have  a  little  church  of  their  own  near  their  monastery,  — 
it  is  dedicated  to  Saint  Catherine  and  serves  as  a  parish  church.8 


1  Hinnom  seems  to  have  been  the  name  of  some  man,  perhaps  a  Jebu- 
site,  as  the  designation  ge  lene  Hinnom  also  .occurs.     Cf.  Vigouroux, 
Diet. 

2  i.  e.  house  of  bread,  probably  because  much  grain  was  grown  in  the 
neighborhood. 

3  This  church  was  rebuilt  in  1880,  by  the  assistance  of  the  Emperor 
of  Austria,  and  it  was  consecrated  on  Aug.  18,  1882.    In  Bethlehem  there 
are  still  some  descendants  of  the  Crusaders,  who  call  themselves  Vene- 
tians, and  speak  chiefly  Italian.    The  Catholic  community  numbers  4000 
souls.    The  rest  of  the  8000  inhabitants  of  Bethlehem  are  Greeks,  and  a 
few  Armenians  and  Mahometans.     A  very  small  part  of  the  population 


28     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

The  Grotto  of  the  Nativity  and  the  large  church  dedicated 
to  our  Lady  once  belonged  to  the  Catholics,  but  were  seized 
by  the  Greeks,  the  church  in  1758  and  tlje  Grotto  in  1847.1 

3.  Hebron   (=  fellowship)   lies  in  a  beautiful  mountainous 
region,  six  hours'  journey  south  of  Bethlehem.     The  town  is 
well  known  from  the  history  of  Abraham  and  David.     At  the 
present  time  it  has  10,000  inhabitants,  who  are  almost  all  Ma- 
hometans.   There  is  a  mosque  on  the  east  of  the  town,  contain- 
ing the  graves  of  the  patriarchs.     An  hour's  journey  north  of 
Hebron  is  the  Valley  Mambre,  where  Abraham  dwelt  for  some 
time. 

4.  On  the  southern  boundary  of  Chanaan  was  the  town  of 
Beersabe  (=  seven  springs),  which  is  often  mentioned  in  Holy 
Scripture. 

5.  Jericho,2  a  very  ancient  city  of  the  kings  of  Chanaan. 
It  lay  seven  hours'  journey  to  the  east  of  Jerusalem,  at  some 
distance  from  the  Jordan.     Now  it  is  deserted,  and  only  ruins 
mark  the  site  of  the  former  city,  and  a  tiny  village  called  Riha 
reminds  us  of  its  name. 

6.  Anathoth,  the  birthplace  of  the  prophet  Jeremias,  was 
a    priestly    city,    one   and    one-half    hours'    journey   north   of 
Jerusalem. 

7.  Rama,  now  Ram,  lay  three  hours'  journey  north  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

8.  Bethel,  now  Beitun,  the  place  where  Jacob  saw  the  ladder 
from  heaven,  is  four  and  a  half  hours'  journey  north  of  Jeru- 
salem.    After  the  separation  of  the  two  realms  it  belonged  to 
Samaria,  and  became  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  idolatrous  worship 
(cf.  Amos  vii.). 

9.  Silo,  a  little  north  of  Bethel,  now  a  place  of  ruins  called 

is  Protestant;    this  denomination  has  a  church  and  a  school  of  its  own. 
There  are  no  Jews  in  Bethlehem. 

1  The  well-justified  claims  of  Latin  Christians  upon  the  holy  places 
are  almost  all  jeopardized  by  attacks  made  by  schismatics.     On  Nov.  4, 
1901,  several  Franciscans  were  severely  injured  in  the  Church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulcher,  as  also  happened  on  Jan.  22,  1907,  in  Saint  Mary's  at 
Bethlehem. 

2  i.e.  the  fragrant  (from  HVl),  not  the  moon-city  (from  rnj).     The 
neighborhood  of  this  town  formerly  abounded  in  fragrant  plants',  such  as 
balsams  and  rose  trees. 


THE    HOLY   LAND  29 

Seilun,  was  the  resting  place  of  the  Tabernacle  at  the  time  of 
the  Judges. 

10.  Emmaus  (see  Luke  xxiv.  13).    It  is  now  a  village  called 
Kubeibeh,  and  is  situated  60  furlongs   (three  hours'  journey) 
to  the  northwest  of  Jerusalem.1 

11.  Lydda,  now  Ludd,  is  mentioned  in  Acts  ix.  33.     It  is 
believed  to  have  been  the  birthplace  of  Saint  Georgius,  and  lies 
ten  hours'  journey  westward  of  Jerusalem.     Near  it  is  Ramie, 
which  tradition  identifies  with  Arimathea,  although  many  people 
believe  Rama  near  Jerusalem  to  be  Arimathea.2 

12.  Joppe  or  Jaffa,  a  town  on  the  Mediterranean;   the  place 
where  Jonas  took  ship  in  order  to  flee  to  Tharsis.     The  town 
has  45,000  inhabitants,  and  is  still,  as  it  was  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  usual  landing  place  for  pilgrims,  although  the  stormy 
sea  and  the  sunken  rocks  make  the  harbor  -unsafe. 

1  The  name  =  chammath,  to  be  hot,  is  equivalent  to  Thermae.     The 
district  was   formerly   rich  in   springs.     The   Franciscans  now   have   a 
church  and  a  friary,  and  the  German  Holy  Land  Society  has  acquired 
some  property  there.     Kubeibeh  or  Kubebe  is,  according  to  Haneberg's 
Archdologie,  to  be  identified  with  Gabeon,  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament,   but  its   position  is  disputed.     The  above  statement   is 
based  upon  a  tradition  that  goes   back  to   the  time  of  the   Crusades. 
The  Franciscans  believe  Kubeibeh  to  be  the  Emmaus  mentioned  by  Saint 
Luke,  and  so  do  various  other  writers ;    but  there  are  several  other  opin- 
ions on  the  subject.     Some  identify  Emmaus  with  the  present  Amwas  on 
the  plain  to  the  east  of  Jaffa.    Eusebius  and  Saint  Jerome  both  say  that 
this  place,  which  is  also  called  Nicopolis,  was  the  Emmaus  of  the  Bible. 
It  is,  however,  too  far  from  Jerusalem,  being  at  a  distance  of  176  fur- 
longs, or  nearly  nine  hours*  journey,  and  so  it  cannot  be  reconciled  with 
Saint  Luke's  account.    Sepp  thinks  that  the  present  Kulonieh  (Colonia), 
about  30  furlongs  from  Jerusalem  on  the  way  to  Jaffa,  may  have  been 
Emmaus,  but  there  is  no  tradition  supporting  this  theory,  and  Kulonieh 
is  too  near.     The  Greeks  believe  Abu-Gosch,  the  ancient  Kariathiarim, 
60  furlongs  from  Jerusalem,  to  be  Emmaus,  but  this  view  also  is  unsup- 
ported by  tradition. 

The  Codex  Sin.  reads  in  Luke  xxiv.  16,  160  furlongs,  and  not  60. 
Tischendorf  and  others  regard  this  as  an  intentional  alteration.  After 
careful  observations  and  personal  investigations  in  Palestine,  Belser  has 
pronounced  himself  opposed  to  the  Nicopolis  theory,  and  in  favor  of 
Kubeibeh,  chiefly  on  account  of  its  distance  from  Jerusalem.  The  reason 
why  Eusebius  and  Saint  Jerome  preferred  Nicopolis  is  probably  that  in 
their  time  Emmaus-Kubeibeh  was  destroyed,  devastated  and  forgotten. 
Cf.,  however,  Knabenbauer,  Comm.  in  Luc.,  p.  632. 

2  Ever  since  1296  the  Franciscans  have  had  a  mission  at  Ramie;    in 
1902  their  chapel  was  transformed  into  a  beautiful  church. 


30     HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF   THE  BIBLE 


II.   Samaria 

The  central  portion  of  Palestine  derives  its  name  from  the 
town  that  was  once  the  capital  of  the  northern  kingdom. 

1.  Samaria  (Hebr.  schomron,  Gk.  ^afJLapeia  and  afterwards 
2e/3a0T77,  which  name  is  still  retained,  though  the  natives  pro- 
nounce it  Usbuste).    The  town  was  built  by  Omri,  king  of  the 
northern  State,  about  the  year  930  B.  c.     It  was  situated  on  a 
hill  which  the  king  had  bought  from  a  certain  Schemer,  called 
in   the   Septuagint    Se^p,   and   in   the   Vulgate    Somer    (III 
Kings  xvi.  24).    It  remained  the  capital  for  two  hundred  years, 
but  was  destroyed  in  722,  though  subsequently  rebuilt.    Herod  I 
enlarged  it,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Sebaste  in  honor  of  the 
Emperor  Augustus.1 

At  the  present  time  it  is  only  a  village  with  500  inhabitants. 
Among  the  ruins  of  the  old  town  those  of  the  Church  of  St. 
John  the  Baptist  are  conspicuous.  According  to  tradition  his 
body  was  buried  here.  Thirza  (i.e.  grace),  which  served  for 
a  short  time  as  a  royal  residence,  may  have  been  in  the  neigh- 
borhood ;  perhaps  it  should  be  identified  with  the  modern  Tejazir, 
thirteen  miles  northeast  of  Sichem. 

2.  Sichem  (Hebr.  schelcem  =  ridge  or  stretch  of  land)  was 
the  central  point  of  the  Holy  Land,  and  lay  fourteen  hours' 
journey  north  of  Jerusalem,  between  the  hills  Garizim  and  Ebal, 
the  former  being  to  the  south,  the  latter  to  the  north  of  the 
town.     Sichem  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  time  of  Abraham 
and  Jacob.     After  the  division  of  the  kingdoms,  Sichem  was 
the  residence  of  the  kings  of  the  northern  State.     In  Apostolic 
times  it  was  generally  called  Neapolis,  the  new  city,  probably 
because  it  had  been  almost  completely  rebuilt  under  Vespasian. 
The  modern  name  Nablus  comes  from  Neapolis.    The  town  now 
contains    25,000    Mahometan    inhabitants.      A    small   body    of 
Samaritans,   about  200   in  number,   still  live   at  the  foot   of 
Garizim. 

3.  Ccesarea,  situated  on  the  west  coast,  and  therefore  known 


1  <re/9a<TT?)  =  augusta  ;    <r^/3w,    fftfiofuu  =  to  honor  ;    <rc/3a(rr6s  =  honored, 
honorable  =  augustus. 


THE    HOLY   LAND  31 

as  Maritima,  to  distinguish  it  from  Caesarea  Philippi,  was  built 
by  Herod  I,  and  raised  by  Augustus  to  the  dignity  of  an  imperial 
city.  In  Koman  times  the  procurator  of  the  province  generally 
lived  here.  Saint  Paul  was  a  prisoner  here  for  two  years.  After 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Caesarea  was  regarded  as  the  capital, 
and  very  early  became  a  bishop's  see.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
some  part  of  the  town  was  still  inhabited,  but  now  it  all  lies  in 
ruins. 

III.    Galilee 

In  the  north  of  Chanaan  the  Israelites  lived  in  the  midst  of 
pagans,  and  hence  this  part  of  the  country  received  the  name 
gelil  haggojim  =  the  heathen  district,  in  Greek  Ta\i\ata 
TUT  etiv&v*  or  simply  Ta\t\ala  (Is.  viii.  23;  I  Mach.  v.  15; 
Matt.  iv.  15).  Its  chief  towns  were: 

1.  Nazareth   (from  nezer,  flower,  hence  Nazareth  =  city  of 
flowers)  is  never  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament.     It  lies  on 
a  hill  in  southern  Galilee,  six  hours'  journey  southwest  of  the 
Lake   of   Genesareth.     From   very   early   times   pilgrims   have 
visited  Nazareth,  and  it  soon  possessed  several  churches,  and 
was  a  bishop's  see  in  the  Middle  Ages.     Since  the  fourteenth 
century  the  little  town  has  been  decaying.     In  1620  the  Fran- 
ciscans restored  the  Church  of  the  Annunciation,1  and  in  1720 
a  friary,  and  then  some  other  houses,  arose  from  the  ruins. 
Nazareth  has  now  11,000  inhabitants,  mostly  Catholics. 

2.  The  little  town  of  Nairn,  now  scarcely  more  than  a  village, 
lay  three  hours'  journey  southeast  of  Nazareth. 

3.  Cana,  now  a  village  with  600  inhabitants,  and  known  as 

1  The  casa  santa,  or  house  of  the  Holy  Family,  is  venerated  at  Loreto 
in  Italy.  According  to  the  legend  it  was  brought  to  the  west  in  1291, 
first  to  Dalmatia,  and  in  1395  to  Loreto.  A  basilica  has  been  built  over 
it.  Many  people  have  doubted  whether  it  is  genuine;  the  following  are 
the  reasons  for  believing  it  to  be  so:  (a)  By  permission  of  Pope  Pius 
IX  in  1861  the  Roman  antiquarian  Bartolini  caused  some  stone  and 
mortar  from  the  casa  santa,  and  also  some  from  the  foundations  of  the 
house  at  Nazareth,  to  be  chemically  examined,  and  they  proved  to  be 
exactly  similar,  whereas  such  stone  and  mortar  are  not  used  in  Italy. 
(6)  In  Kresser's  work,  Nazareth,  ein  Zeuge  fur  Loreto  (Graz,  1908),  evi- 
dence is  adduced  to  show  that  the  house  of  the  Holy  Family  was  in 
Nazareth  until  1291,  but  vanished  after  that  date,  (c)  Father  Poisat, 
S.J.,  in  the  Univers,  1907. 


32     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Kefr-Kana,  is  an  hour  and  a  half's  journey  north  of  Nazareth. 
This  village,  rather  than  the  more  distant  Kana-Eldschelil,1 
ought  to  be  regarded  as  the  place  where  our  Lord  wrought  His 
first  miracle.  It  is  believed  to  have  been  the  birthplace  of 
Saint  Bartholomew  the  Apostle. 

4.  On  the  west  coast  of  the  Lake  of  Genesareth  is  the  city 
of   Tiberias,   built   by   Herod   Antipas   and   named   after   the 
Emperor  Tiberius.     It  is  now  called  Tubarieh,  and  contains 
8000  inhabitants  of  various  creeds. 

5.  Not  far  away,  and  also  on  the  west  coast  of  the  lake, 
was  the  village  of  Magdala,  now  Medschdel,  which  is  thought 
to  have  been  the  birthplace  of  Saint  Mary  Magdalen. 

6.  Also  in  the  same  neighborhood  was  Bethsaida,  the  home 
of  several   of  the  apostles,  but  it  cannot  now  be   identified. 
Another  Bethsaida  with  the  additional  name  Julias   ('louXia?, 
-aSo?,  after  the  daughter  of  Augustus),  lay  on  the  northeast 
shore  of  the  lake.    The  feeding  of  the  five  thousand  took  place 
near  there.2 

7.  Capharnaum,  our  Saviour's  favorite  town,  was  on  the  north- 
west shore  of  the  lake.     In  Saint  Jerome's  time  it  was  still 
a  town,  though  decaying.     In  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  a 
heap  of  ruins,  and  now  every  trace  of  it  has  disappeared,  so 
that  its  very  site  is  a  matter  of  discussion  (cf.  Matt.  xi.  S3).3 


IV.    The  Country  East  of  the  Jordan 

The  southern  part  of  the  region  east  of  the  Jordan  was  for- 
merly called  Galaad  or  Gilead,  and  the  northern  part  Basan; 
but  at  the  time  of  our  Lord  the  whole  province  was  known  as 

1  Sepp  follows  the  Onomasticon  of  Eusebius  in  regarding  Kana-Galil, 
four  hours'  journey  north  of  Nazareth,  as  the  scene  of  our  Lord's  first 
miracle.  This  is  a  mistake,  for  tradition  always  pointed  to  Kefr-Kana. 
Cf.  Josue  xix.  28. 

3  Sepp  and  Guthe  think  the  Bethsaida  on  the  northeast  shore  was  the 
only  town  of  that  name,  but  they  have  many  opponents. 

8  Most  authorities  regard  the  ruins  at  Tell-Hum  (Sepp  derives  this 
name  from  re\uviov,  place  of  tribute)  as  marking  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Capharnaum.  Sepp  prefers  to  identify  it  with  Chan-Minieh,  which  lies 
farther  south,  not  far  from  Medschdel,  although  he  thus  is  at  variance 
with  the  old  pilgrims'  reports  and  with  Josephus. 


THE   HOLY   LAND  33 

Peraea,  i.  e.  the  land  beyond,  irepav rov'IopSdvov.  At  that  period 
it  was  divided  into  three  portions :  (1)  In  the  north  were  the  five 
districts  known  as  Gaulonitis,  Iturasa,  Auranitis,  Trachonitis 
and  Batanaea,  these  being  the  Greek  forms  of  the  Semitic  names 
Golan,  Jethur,  Hauran,  Trachona  and  Basan.  (2)  In  the  center 
eight  towns,  viz.  Philadelphia  (Eabbath  Ammon),  Eaphana, 
Gerasa,  Duim,  Pella,  Scythopolis,  Gadara  and  Hippus,  had 
formed  a  league  with  the  more  distant  cities  of  Kanatha  and 
Damascus,  so  that  the-  Evangelists  speak  of  the  region  as 
Decapolis,  i.  e.  the  ten  cities.  (3)  The  southern  portion  was 
Peraea  in  the  narrower  sense  of  the  word,  and,  together  with 
Galilee,  was  governed  by  Herod  Antipas. 
The  best  known  towns  in  this  country  are : 

1.  Cwsarea  Philippi  in  the  north,  originally  called  Paneas,  so 
named  from  a  cave  in  the  neighborhood  dedicated  to  the  god 
Pan.    The  town  was  enlarged  by  Philip  the  Tetrarch  and  named 
Caesarea,  with  flattering  reference  to  Augustus.    A  mere  hamlet 
known  as  Banias  now  stands  on  the  site  of  the  former  city. 

2.  Gerasa,  now  Dscherasch,  and  Kabbath  Ammon  (—  Phila- 
delphia), now  Amman,  are  situated  farther  south,  in  what  was 
once  Decapolis. 

3.  Hesebon,  a  very  ancient  royal  city,  lay  opposite  to  Jericho, 
not  far  from  the  Jordan. 

4.  Still  farther  south,  near  the  Dead  Sea,  was  the  fortress 
Machcerus,  in  which,  according  to  Josephus  Flavius,  John  the 
Baptist  was  put  to  death  (Jos.  PL,  Antiq.,  XVIII).     Near  it 
was  Callirrhoe,  a  place  with  hot  springs,  where  Herod  I,  towards 
the  end  of  his  life,  vainly  sought  a  cure  for  his  disease. 

5.  Dibon,  on  the  plain  north  of  the  Arnon,  was  sometimes 
claimed -by  the  tribe  of  Gad  and  sometimes  by  that  of  Euben. 
It  is  now  in  ruins,  but  is  occasionally  mentioned  because  one 
of  the  earliest  Hebrew  monuments,  a  triumphal  column  of  King 
Mesa  of  Moab,  dating  from  896  B.  c.,  was  discovered  here  in 
1868. 

This  column  is  1.13  meters  in  height,  0.7  meters  in  breadth  and  con- 
firms the  statements  contained  in  IV  Kings  iii.  4,  etc.  It  was  first  seen 
by  Klein,  a  German  missionary.  In  1869  Clermont-Ganneau,  a  French- 
man, took  a  cast  of  it.  After  that,  the  Bedouins  broke  the  stone,  but  the 


34    HANDBOOK   FOE   THE   STUDY   OF   THE   BIBLE 

black  basalt  is  so  extremely  hard  that  it  was  possible  to  collect  the 
fragments  and  convey  them  to  Paris,  where  they  are  preserved  in  the 
Louvre. 

6.  Madaba,  thirteen  miles  east  of  the  north  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  was  generally  reckoned  as  belonging  to  the  land  of  Moab? 
but  in  Josue  xiii.  9  and  16  it  is  ascribed  to  the  tribe  of  Euben. 
Later  on  it  became  a  bishop's  see  and  contained  several  churches. 

This  town  long  lay  desolate,  but  is  now  again  inhabited  by  800  schis- 
matics and  400  Latin  Christians.  During  the  process  of  rebuilding  a 
Greek  church,  among  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  basilica,  a  mosaic  map  of  the 
Holy  Land  was  discovered,  dating  from  the  sixth  century  A.  D.  It  origi- 
nally covered  the  whole  floor  of  the  basilica  from  wall  to  wall,  and  was 
a  most  important  find.  Cf.  Revue  biblique,  1897,  II,  165. 

It  is  quite  possible  that,  as  the  prophecies  seem  to  suggest,  Palestine 
is  destined  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  salvation  of  mankind.  It 
seems  to  exert  a  wonderful  attraction,  not  only  upon  many  Jews,  but 
also  upon  Christian  nations,  who  are  drawn  towards  this  cradle  of  Juda- 
ism and  Christianity.  From  east  and  west,  Asiatics,  Europeans,  and 
Americans;  Armenians,  Copts,  Greeks,  Russians,  and  Latins;  Catho- 
lics and  Protestants,  —  all  are  eager  to  acquire  settlements  in  the  Holy 
Land.  The  most  energetic  in  this  respect  are  the  Russians,  who  far  sur- 
pass all  other  nations  in  the  number  of  pilgrims  who  yearly  visit  the 
Holy  Land,  and  also  in  founding  schools  and  other  establishments,  espe- 
cially in  the  northwest  of  Jerusalem.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  their 
zeal  is  aimed  against  Rome. 


SECOND  PART 


THE  HOLY  PEOPLE 

BIBLICAL   AECH^EOLOGY 
A.    OUTLINES   OF   THE    HISTORY    OF   ISRAEL 

1.   TRADITIONAL  AND  MODERN   ACCOUNTS  OF  THE   HISTORY 

OF  ISRAEL 

A.    Traditional  Account 

THE  people  of  Israel  are  descended  from  the  Patriarchs 
Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob.  Abraham,  the  founder  of 
the  race,  was  born  at  Ur  in  Chaldea,  and  with  his  whole  family  he 
migrated  to  Haran  in  Mesopotamia,  where  his  father  Thare 
(Terach)  died.  Being  a  worshiper  of  the  one  true  God,  he 
left  Haran,  which  was  an  idolatrous  city,  and  about  the  year 
2080  B.  c.  betook  himself  with  Lot,  his  nephew,  to  Chanaan.  Lot 
parted  from  him  and  became  the  ancestor  of  the  Ammonites  and 
the  Moabites.  Abraham  had  several  sons,  who  founded  various 
tribes  of  Arabs;  viz.  Ismael,  son  of  the  Egyptian  woman  Agar, 
and  the  twelve  sons  of  Ketura;  but  by  his  first  wife,  Sara, 
Abraham  had  only  one  son,  Isaac.  God  made  a  covenant  with 
him  for  the  preservation  of  the  true  religion  among  his  descend- 
ants, and  for  the  eventual  redemption  of  mankind  by  means 
of  a  Saviour  to  be  born  of  his  line.  The  two  sons  of  Isaac, 
Esau  and  Jacob,  founded  the  nations  of  the  Edomites  and 
the  Israelites  respectively.  Through  the  action  of  Joseph,  one 
of  Jacob's  twelve  sons,,  the  families  of  Israelites  went  to  Egypt 
before  1800  B.  c.  and  remained  there  a  considerable  time,  becom- 
ing very  numerous.  Being  oppressed,  they  were  led  back  out 
of  Egypt  by  Moses,  and  lived  for  many  years  as  nomads  in 
Arabia.  They  received  the  divine  law  on  Sinai,  and  concluded 
a  covenant  with  Yahweh,  whereby  they  became  the  chosen 
people  of  the  one  true  God,  chosen  to  receive  His  revelations, 
thus  being  raised  above  all  other  nations. 


38     HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF   THE   BIBLE 

Finally  they  entered  the  Promised  Land  from  the  east,  and 
expelled  the  earlier  inhabitants  or  subjugated  them,  extermi- 
nating some  as  a  punishment  for  their  sins.  Thenceforth  they 
lived  under  the  rule  of  judges,  until  Saul,  of  the  tribe  of  Benja- 
min, was  made  their  king.  He  was  succeeded  by  David,  of  the 
tribe  of  Juda,  and  David  by  his  son  Solomon.  During  the 
reign  of  Eoboam,  Solomon's  son  and  successor,  ten  tribes  fell 
away  from  David's  dynasty  and  founded  another  kingdom  in 
the  north,  in  Samaria,  with  kings  of  their  own.  This  northern 
kingdom  was  destroyed  by  the  Assyrians  in  722  B.  c.  and  the 
majority  of  its  inhabitants  were  carried  off  to  Assyria.  One 
hundred  and  thirty-four  years  later  the  southern  kingdom  with 
Jerusalem,  the  capital,  was  plundered  by  the  Babylonians 
(588  B.C.),  the  magnificent  temple  was  destroyed,  and  the  in- 
habitants were  taken  in  captivity  to  Babylon.  When  tha  Persians 
took  this  city  in  538  B.  c.,  the  Jews  were  allowed  to  return  home, 
but  not  all  availed  themselves  of  this  permission. 

Those  who  returned  rebuilt  the  Temple,  and  gradually  re- 
gained their  national  and  religious  self-confidence.  Two  men 
in  particular,  Esdras  and  Nehemias,  did  very  much  to  restore 
a  settled  state  of  affairs;  Esdras  induced  the  people  to  renew 
the  covenant  with  God  on  the  basis  of  the  Mosaic  law ;  Nehemias 
attended  to  the  revival  of  the  external  political  order.  After  the 
fall  of  the  Persian  Empire  the  Jews  became  dependent  first 
upon  the  Egyptian  Ptolemies,  and  then  upon  the  Syrian 
Seleucidae.  In  the  second  century  before  Christ  they  recovered 
their  freedom  after  a  severe  struggle,  and  thenceforth  had  kings 
of  their  own  nation.  After  64  B.  c.  they  gradually  became  sub- 
ject to  the  Eomans,  who  in  the  year  70  A.  D.  destroyed  Jerusalem 
and  put  an  end  to  the  existence  of  the  Jewish  State.  Since  that 
time  the  people  of  Israel  have  been  scattered  all  over  the  world, 
but  have  nevertheless  preserved  the  purity  of  their  race  almost 
unimpaired  throughout  this  long  period.  The  present  number 
of  Jews  is  about  eleven  millions.1 

1  The  history,  religion,  literature  and  customs  of  the  Jewish  people, 
from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present  day,  have  been  discussed  very  fully 
in  the  "  Jewish  Encyclopedia  "  in  twelve  volumes,  published  in  New  York 
and  London,  1901-1906;  605  writers,  mostly  Jews,  contributed  to  the 
work. 


THE   HOLY   PEOPLE  39 

B.   Modern  Account  of  the  History  of  Israel 

Eationalistic  criticism  accepts  the  foregoing  account  of  the 
history  of  Israel  only  partially.  According  to  it,  no  nation  knows 
anything  of  the  founder  of  its  race,  and  therefore  the  stories  of 
Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob,  and  their  immediate  descendants, 
as  recorded  in  Scripture,  is  to  be  regarded  as  purely  mythical 
and  devoid  of  historical  truth.1 

Owing  to  the  absence  of  Egyptian  testimony  it  is  disputed 
whether  all  or  any  of  the  Israelite  tribes  ever  lived  in 
Egypt.2 

Moses  is  to  be  recognized  as  an  historical  person,  who  in- 
structed the  Israelites  in  the  worship  of  one  God,  Yahweh,  who 
was  especially  adored  on  Sinai.  This  god  "  Yahweh  was  not 
originally  the  universal  deity,  becoming  later  the  God  of  Israel; 
but  he  was  primarily  the  God  of  Israel,  and  much  later  became 
God  of  the  whole  world "  (Wellhausen).  It  is  possible  that 
Moses  wrote  something,  but  it  cannot  be  proved;  in  any  case, 
the  Thora,  as  we  now  have  it  in  five  books,  cannot  have  been 
compiled  by  him.  The  cultus,  however,  which  was  connected 
with  the  portable  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  and  in  some  degree  the 

1  This   is   an  arbitrary  assumption,  arising  from  the  denial  of  the 
supernatural,  and  of  the  character  of  Israel  as  the  people  of  revelation. 
The  only  nation  which  clung  to  the  true  God  was  not  permitted  to  mix 
with  other  races;    those  who  belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  God  could  not 
be  permitted  to  mingle  with  the  subjects  of  worldly  rulers.     Therefore 
this  particular  nation  of  necessity  had  to  know  the  founders  of  its  race, 
and  the  sacred  records  carefully  preserved  the  genealogies  and  handed 
them  down  unaltered.    After  the  Captivity  those  Israelites  who  could  prove 
their  descent  were  clearly  distinguished  from  those  unable  to  do  so,  and 
the  latter  could  not  enjoy  the  full  privileges  of  citizenship  (I  Esdras  ii. 
59,  60).     It  made  a  vast  difference  who  belonged  to  the  line  inheriting 
the  blessing,  and  who  did  not.     Other  nations  perhaps  know  nothing  of 
their  ancestry,  but  Israel  is  not  like  other  nations.    The  name  of  Abram 
is  actually  found  on  early  Babylonian  contract  tablets,  and  the  position 
of  Ur,  his  home,  now  Mugheir  on  the  Euphrates,  has  been  discovered 

( Sayce,  "  Records  of  the  Past " ) .  Further  details  will  be  found  in  Dorn- 
stetter's  work,  "Abraham,"  1901.  In  it  excellent  reasons  are  given  for 
opposing  the  attempt  to  relegate  the  story  of  Abraham  to  the  sphere  of 
legend. 

2  Spiegelberg's  investigation,  however,  comfirms  the  traditional  ac- 
count of  the  history  of  Israel. 


40     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

Thora,  i.  e.  the  administration  of  justice,  which  was  bound 
up  with  the  cultus,  both  have  come  down  to  us  from  Moses. 
The  Thora  was  one  of  the  chief  supports  of  the  national  life. 
A  priest  on  Sinai,  said  by  tradition  to  have  been  Moses'  father- 
in-law,  took  an  important  part  in  the  work  of  composing  it. 
After  leaving  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  Israel  migrated  to  the 
country  east  of  the  Jordan,  but  the  date  and  the  route  of  this 
migration  are  unknown.  As  the  population  increased,  it  over- 
flowed into  the  district  west  of  the  river,  migrating  first  after 
the  fashion  of  Bedouins,  i.  e.  making  small  but  frequent  inroads 
upon  the  territory  of  the  Chanaanites,  but  in  course  of  time 
forming  permanent  settlements.  It  is  impossible  to  believe  in 
a  rapid  conquest  of  Chanaan  by  force  of  arms  under  Josue's  com- 
mand; probably  the  Israelites  and  the  Chanaanites  often  lived 
peaceably  together,  as  is  implied  in  Judges  i.  From  the 
Chanaanites,  who  were  superior  to  the  Israelites  in  civilization, 
the  immigrants  adopted  many  outward  forms  of  civilized  life, 
and  recognized  their  holy  places  and  chief  festivals.  Through 
amalgamating  with  the  Chanaanites  and  other  tribes,  the  Israel- 
ites became  an  agricultural  nation  —  and  it  is  at  this  point  that 
their  real  history  begins.  The  reigns  of  Saul,  David  and  Solomon 
are  all  historical,  and  so  is  the  separation  of  the  kingdom  into 
two  parts,  Samaria  and  Juda,  and  the  destruction  of  these  king- 
doms by  the  Assyrians  and  the  Babylonians.  The  Captivity  is 
also  an  historical  fact;  a  small  remnant  of  Jews  returned  from 
Babylon,  and  it  was  not  until  then  that  the  books  professing  to 
be  historical,  as  we  know  them,  were  composed. 

These  books  are:  First,  the  Pentateuch,  which  is  believed  to 
have  been  compiled  from  various  older  sources,  viz.  (1)  a  Yahvis- 
tic  and  (2)  an  Elohistic  history,  so  called  from  the  use  of  the 
names  Yahweh  and  Elohim  to  designate  God.  The  former 
work  perhaps  dates  from  about  800  B.  c.,  and  was  written  in  the 
southern  kingdom ;  the  latter  is  of  the  same  date,  but  was  written 
in  the  north;  (3)  the  Deuteronomium,  consisting  of  the  original 
Deuteronomium  (chapters  xii.-xxvi.),  written  in  623  B.C.  and 
some  later  additions;  (4)  the  "priests'  code,"  written  about 
500  B.  c.  in  Babylon,  and  containing  regulations  for  offering 
sacrifices,  purification,  etc.  (i.  e.  especially  the  present  book  of 


THE   HOLY   PEOPLE  41 

Leviticus).  The  second  class  of  books  contains  Josue,  Judges, 
Samuel,  Kings  and  Euth ;  in  the  compilation  of  all  of  these  use 
was  made  of  earlier  records.  The  Psalms  too,  and  all  the  other 
books,  but  more  particularly  the  so-called  writings  of  Solomon, 
belong  to  the  period  after  the  Captivity,  and  nothing  remains 
that  can  be  ascribed  to  an  earlier  date  except  some  of  the  pro- 
phetic works,  which  go  back  to  about  800  B.  c. 

2.   RESULTS 

If  these  theories  are  correct,  then  we  must  conclude : 

1.  That  the  Israelite  priests,  who  (IV  Kings  xxii.  8,  etc.)  in 
623  B.  c.  under  King  Josias  (Stade,  I,  642)  are  said  to  have  com- 
piled the  Law  of  Moses,  or,  as  Stade  calls  it,  "  the  Book  of  Doc- 
trine "  (i.  e.,  according  to  modern  criticism,  Deut.  xii.— xxvi.),  and 
especially  Helcias  the  priest,  who  "  found  "  it  in  the  temple  and 
pointed  it  out  to  the  king  as  the  work  of  Moses,  were  all  liars 
and  forgers.     Josias,  the  king,  and  the  whole  nation  would  in 
that  case  have  been  deceived  by  a  very  clumsy  forgery,  quite 
easy  of  detection; 

2.  That   Esdras   and   Nehemias,   who,   after   the   Captivity, 
strove  to  revive  the  national  spirit  on  the  ground  of  the  Mosaic 
Law,  "  which  the  Lord  God  had  given  to  Israel "  (Esdras  vii.  6), 
and    to   renew    the    covenant    between    God    and    His    people 
(Nehem.  viii.  1,  etc.),  were  likewise  liars  and  forgers  (Stade,  I, 
16),  and  the  Israelites  of  that  time  were  deceived,  as  a  recently 
composed  work  was  read  to  them  and  expounded  as  the  Law  of 
Moses,  and  they  were  credulous  enough  to  accept  it  without 
question ; 

3.  That  the  whole  of  Judaism  and  Christianity  based  upon 
it  are  the  outcome  of  repeated  acts  of  deception  and  not  of 
divine  revelation ; 

4.  That  Jesus  Christ  Himself,  who  speaks  of  Abraham  as  the 
founder  of  the  race,  of  Moses  as  a  writer,  and  of  t)avid  as  a 
Psalmist,  was  Himself  ignorant,  and  therefore  could  not  be 
God. 


42     HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF   THE   BIBLE 


3.   GENERAL  EEFUTATIOK 

The  theories  just  stated  have  already  won  so  much  popularity 
among  non-Catholic  theologians  that  an  adherent  of  the  old 
traditional  doctrine  is  assumed  by  them  to  have  no  place  in  the 
ranks  of  scholars.  The  recognition  of  the  post- Captivity  origin 
of  the  Pentateuch  is  extolled  as  one  of  the  most  brilliant  results 
of  scientific  research.  It  is  admitted  that  for  the  present  these 
results  of  "science"  cannot  be  communicated  to  the  general 
public  nor  to  the  young  (Stade,  I,  11).  "Whether  the  material 
employed  be  really  historical  need  not  be  considered"  in  teach- 
ing "  what  is  called  Bible  history,  .  ,  .  which  aims  at  edification 
and  appeals  to  children."  But  the  "  scientific  statements  are 
meant  for  adults,  who  strive  solely  after  truth  and  the  whole 
truth."  1  But  let  us  examine  the  value  of  this  "  truth." 

1.  The  attempts  to  give  a  natural  explanation  for  everything 
and  to  deny  the  occurrence  of  all  supernatural  intervention  of 
God  in  human  affairs,  and  especially  in  the  fortunes  of  the 
people  of  Israel,  are  in  direct  opposition  to  any  conception  of 
God  as  the  almighty,  omniscient  and  all-good  personal  Being, 
who  does  not  allow  Himself  to  be  completely  cut  off  from  His 
creatures.     These  attempts  lead,  therefore,  to  Pantheism  and 
Atheism. 

2.  According   to    modern    criticism    the    Hebrew    race    was 
originally  as  polytheistic  as  any  other  nation;    it  is  true  that 
from  the  time  of  Moses  onwards  Yahweh  was  regarded  as  their 
deity,  but  Yahweh  was  in  no  respect  superior  to  Baal  of  the 
Phoenicians,  Kemosch  of  the  Ammonites,   or  Milkom  of  the 
Moabites.     Every  nation  had  its  own  particular  god,  and  so 
had  Israel.    Modern  critics,  like  the  Moabites  of  old,  say,  "  Be- 
hold, the  house  of  Juda  is  like  all  other  nations  "  (Ezech.  xxv.  8). 
They   maintain  that  the   ancient   Jews   enjoyed   no   exclusive 
position  in  their  relation  to  God;    the  existence  of  other  gods 
was  recognized  as  well  as  that  of  Yahweh;    Monotheism  de- 

1  Smith,  G.  A.,  "  Modern  Criticism  and  the  Preaching  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment," London,  1901,  tries  to  show  that  the  results  of  modern  criticism 
can  very  well  be  used  in  preaching;  that  what  is  important  is  not  names, 
but  the  inward  reality  and  types  of  character. 


THE    HOLY   PEOPLE  43 

veloped  gradually,  and  then  Yahweh  was  regarded  as  the  sole 
ruler,  not  of  Israel  alone,  but  of  all  nations  and  lands.  The 
prophets  called  monotheism  into  existence,  and  after  the  Cap- 
tivity it  won  universal  acceptance  among  the  Jews,  Yahweh 
being  exalted  above  all  other  gods. 

But  how  is  it  that  other  nations  did  not  ascribe  to  their  gods 
any  omnipotence  or  universal  dominion,  any  lordship  over  hu- 
manity as  a  whole?  How  can  we  account  for  the  fact  that  the 
insignificant  little  nation  of  Israel  alone  attained  to  this  clear 
view  of  God  ?  The  Jews  were  not  on  a  level  with  greater  races, 
such  as  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  in  point  of  civilization  or 
political  life,  —  how  could  this  people  not  only  evolve  the  idea 
of  there  being  one  supreme  God,  but  cause  their  worship  of  this 
one  God  to  penetrate  and  influence  the  whole  of  their  political, 
religious  and  social  life? 

Israel's  monotheism  is  inexplicable  unless  it  was  an  inher- 
itance (often  too  lightly  esteemed)  from  remote  ages  and  based 
upon  revelation.1 

3.  The  strongest  evidence  against  these  theories  is  supplied 
by  the  origin,  growth  2  and  permanence  of  Christianity,  which, 
had  it  been  of  human  origin,  would  long  ago  have  been  de- 
stroyed by  its  bitter  foes,  so  that  its  continued  existence  is  a 
proof  that  it  is  the  work  of  God.  "If  ...  this  work,"  said 
Gamaliel,  "be  of  men,  it  will  come  to  nought;  but  if  it  be 
of  God,  you  cannot  overthrow  it"  (Acts  v.  38,  39). 

With  its  fixed  and  exalted  doctrines  and  institutions,  Chris- 

1  That  the  Israelites'  religion  was  monotheistic  before  the  Captivity  is 
proved  by  Dr.  J.  Nikel  in  his  work  entitled  Der  Monotheismus  Israels  in 
der  vorexilisclien  Zeit    (Paderborn,  1893).  —  Recent  excavations  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Euphrates  do  not  support  but  overthrow  the  theory 
that  Israel  adopted  monotheism  at  a  comparatively  late  period,  in  con- 
sequence of  studying  the  records  of  the  Babylonians.     All  their  monu- 
ments show  that  the  Babylonian  religion  was  polytheistic.     How  should 
Israel  alone,  amidst  a  number  of  heathen  nations,  have  actually  become 
monotheistic  ? 

2  Mommsen's  "  Roman  History  "  was  intended  to  fill  five  volumes ;    of 
these,  one,  two  and  three  appeared,  and  then  five;    the  fourth  volume  is 
missing.    When  Mommsen  was  asked  to  account  for  this,  he  replied  that 
he  could  not  understand  the  period  with  which  he  had  meant  to  deal  in 
the  fourth  volume  —  it  was  to  him  inexplicable  how  Christianity  had 
suddenly  appeared  in  the  world,  spread  all  over  it  and  transformed  it. 


44     HANDBOOK  FOB  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

tianity  has  bestowed  upon  the  nations  who  received  it  both 
the  highest  civilization  and  supremacy  in  the  world,  it  has 
inspired  many  individuals  to  make  heroic  sacrifices,  it  has 
formed  the  noblest  characters  and  has  brought  untold  multi- 
tudes to  happiness. 

4.  It  is  inconceivable  that  a  nation,  settled  in  the  midst 
of  the  civilized  peoples  of  antiquity,  should  have  remained  for 
centuries  without  a  literature.     The  Egyptians  were  very  fond 
of  writing  and  have  bequeathed  to  us  a  vast  literature,  going 
back  more  than  3000  years  before  Christ.     Scarcely  less  abun- 
dant is  the  very  ancient  literature  of  the  countries  bordering 
on  the  Euphrates,  which  has  recently  been  discovered.     The 
Phoenicians,  the  nearest  neighbors  of  the  Israelites,  are  believed 
to  have  taught  the  Greeks  the  art  of  writing  with  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  and  they  certainly  did  this  before  1200  B.  c.,  at  which 
period  the  Greek  tribes  were  already  strong  enough  to  carry 
the  Trojan  War  to  a  successful  end.     And  yet  the  Israelites 
are  supposed  to  have  produced  no  literature  before  the  year  800, 
if  (as  Reuss,  p.  76,  and  his  followers  assume)  "  the  prophets  are 
older  than  the  Law,  and  the  Psalms  of  later  date  than  both 
Law  and  prophets."    It  is  true  that  the  Israelites  did  not  use 
for  writing  materials  either  the  papyrus  of  Egypt  or  the  clay 
tablets  of  Babylon  and  Ninive,  but,  as  beseemed  a  pastoral 
people,  they  employed  the  prepared  skins  of  animals,  and  occa- 
sionally tablets  of  stone. 

5.  Neither  Jewish  nor  Christian  tradition  knows  anything 
of  an  Israelite  law  laid  down  after  the  Captivity,  but  they  both 
acknowledge  a  law  of  Mosaic  origin.    Whoever  completely  aban- 
dons tradition,  and  interprets  Holy  Scripture  without  reference 
to  it,  often  in  accordance  with  preconceived  opinions,  arbitrarily 
invents  a  history  of  Israel,  and  builds  on  an  insecure  foundation. 

6.  It  is  impossible  that  an  entire  nation  should  allow  itself 
to  be  deceived  with  books  that  made  very  serious  demands  upon 
it,  contained  severe  censures,  and  even  threatened  its  rejection. 
If  the  Jews  had  composed  such  books,  they  would  perhaps  have 
revealed  and  proclaimed  to  the  whole  world  the  honor  and  glory 
of  their  nation,  but  not  its  shame.     (Just  as  Christians  would 
not  have  submitted  to  the  obligation  of  Confession,  but  would 


THE    HOLY   PEOPLE  45 

have  resisted  it,  had  it  been  imposed,  as  some  maintain,  by  the 
Fourth  Lateran  Council,  and  not  inherited  from  Christ  and 
the  Apostles,  so  the  Jews  would  certainly  not  have  submitted 
to  the  yoke  of  the  law,  unless  the  law  had  been  given  by  God 
through  Moses.) 

7.  The  mightiest  nations  known  to  history,  such  as  the 
Assyrians,  Babylonians  and  Phoenicians,  have  disappeared  in 
course  of  time,  or  have  long  ceased  to  play  any  part  in  the 
affairs  of  the  world;  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Egyptians 
and  Greeks  are  now  obscure  —  but  the  small  Jewish  nation, 
although  so  constantly  hated,  persecuted  and  despised,  still 
survives,  and,  scattered  amongst  all  peoples,  exercises  a  great 
influence.  This  permanence  of  the  Israelite  race,  neither  in- 
creasing nor  diminishing  in  numbers,1  is  inexplicable,  unless  we 
acknowledge  that  the  Israelites  were  chosen  and  set  apart, 
were  rejected  and  yet  preserved  to  the  end  of  time  to  fulfill  the 
final  purpose  of  God,  —  in  short,  unless  we  recognize  their  char- 
acter as  the  people  of  the  revelation. 

4.   KEFUTATION  FROM  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

The  preceding  arguments  are  quite  enough  to  demolish  the 
fancies  devised  by  spurious  scholarship;  but  it  is  easy  to 
quote  facts  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  which  will  show 
the  groundless  character  of  the  rationalistic  assertions  that 
we  have  mentioned.  If  it  can  be  proved  that  the  Pentateuch 
existed  long  before  the  time  of  Esdras  or  of  Josias,  and  was 
regarded  as  the  work  of  Moses,  then  the  bold  speculations  of 
modern  criticism  are  at  once  overthrown.  Let  us  now  undertake 
to  prove  it. 

We  may  begin  by  referring  to  the  Book  of  Judges,  in  which 

1  Cf.  Ezech.  xii.  16.  "I  will  leave  a  few  men  of  them  .  .  .  that  they 
may  declare  all  their  wicked  deeds  among  the  nations  whither  they  shall 
go."  Chateaubriand,  in  his  "  Journey  from  Paris  to  Jerusalem,"  remarks 
that  the  Persians,  Greeks  and  Romans  have  vanished  from  the  face  of 
the  earth,  whilst  a  little  nation,  whose  origin  is  far  more  ancient  than 
the  time  when  these  great  nations  appeared,  still  lives  on,  keeping  its 
race  pure.  If  anything  among  the  nations  of  the  earth  bears  the  stamp 
of  the  miraculous,  it  is  the  case  with  these  people. 


46     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

(viii.  14  *)  the  art  of  writing  is  spoken  of  as  something  quite 
familiar  and  commonplace.  The  Judge  Gedeon,  long  before 
the  time  of  the  kings,  took  a  young  man  from  Soccoth,  who  had 
to  write  down  for  him  the  chiefs  and  the  principal  inhabitants 
of  Soccoth,  in  all  77  men.  According  to  Kautzsch  and  Cornill 
this  passage  forms  part  of  one  of  the  oldest  historical  portions 
of  the  Old  Testament.  All  critics  acknowledge  as  genuine  the 
letter  written  by  David  and  sent  through  Urias  (II  Kings  xi.  14) ; 
it  shows  that  in  the  year  1000  B.  c.  reading  and  writing  were 
quite  common.  These  are  only  indirect  testimonies,  but  they 
show  that  it  is  possible  that  the  Pentateuch  existed  long  before 
the  time  of  the  prophets  Amos,  Osee,  etc.  "We  can,  however, 
derive  much  more  evidence  than  this  from  the  Old  Testament. 


I.   The  Original  Deuteronomwm 

Let  us  begin  by  asking  what  we  are  to  understand  by  "the 
book  of  the  law"  or,  as  Stade  calls  it,  the  "book  of  doctrine," 
found  in  the  reign  of  Josias  (IV  Kings  xxii.  8,  etc.)  which  the 
priests  are  supposed  to  have  forged.  Did  it  really  consist  only, 
as  is  suggested,  of  fragments  of  Deuteronomy  (especially  chap- 
ters xii.-xxvi.),  or  was  it  the  whole  law? 

1.  Immediately  after  its  discovery  the  book  is  described  as 
one  familiar  to  all,  but  hidden  away  during  the  time  of  idola- 
trous worship.  Helcias  does  not  say  that  he  has  found  a  strange 
book,  hitherto  unknown,  but  "  I  have  found  the  book  of  the 
law  (sepher  hattora)  in  the  house  of  the  Lord."  It  was  not 
indeed  the  original  manuscript  written  by  Moses,  but  a  later 
copy,  which  could  be  read  at  once  without  any  difficulty.  Never- 
theless, it  was  the  "book  of  the  (Mosaic)  law."2 

1  The  word  "describe,"  as  will  be  seen  from  the  context,  must  be 
taken  in  its  derivative  sense,  meaning  "  to  write  down." 

2  We  need  not  of  course  assume  that  every  word  and  sentence  in  the 
Pentateuch  have  come  down  to  us  from  Moses.    The  work  has  no  doubt 
been  revised,  and  additions  have  been  made,  and  it  must  have  been  fre- 
quently copied,  and  the  language  modified  to  suit  the  changes  in  the 
speech  of  the  people.    The  same  kind  of  alterations  have  been  made  in  our 
prayers   and   popular   books.      Saint  Jerome   even   declared   that   Moses 
might  be  regarded  as  the  author,  but  Esdras  as  the  instaurator  of  the 
book;    but  long  before  Esdras  lived  many  additions  must  have  been 


THE    HOLY   PEOPLE  47 

2.  King  Josias  had  not   been  well   instructed   in   the  law 
during  his  youth,  as  idolatry  prevailed  everywhere.     For  this 
reason  he  was  astonished  and  shocked  at  the  contents  of  the 
book,  after  its  discovery,  and  modern  criticism  regards  this  as 
a  proof  that  the  book  was  altogether  new.     He  must,  however, 
have  known  of  the  law  by  hearsay,  as  he  at  once  realized  his 
position;    and  the  chief  outlines  of  the  law  must  have  been 
known  to  him,  as,  even  before  the  book  was  found,  in  the  twelfth 
year  of  his  reign  (II  Chron.  xxxiv.  3),  he  had  begun  to  reform 
religion,  and  was  putting  down  idolatry  with  vigor.     The  law 
was  no  longer  observed,  but  it  had  not  been  quite  forgotten,  and 
now  the  long-neglected  work  of  Moses  reappeared,  after  being 
hidden  in  the  Temple,  as  of  old  in  the  Tabernacle. 

3.  The  author  of  the  third  and  fourth  books  of  Kings  wrote 
them,  as  critics  admit,  about  the  year  608  B.  c.,  towards  the  end 
of  the  reign  of  Josias  or  at  the  beginning  of  that  of  Joakim. 
He  narrates  the  history  of  the  kings  before  Josias  in  such  a 
way  that  everything  contrary  to  the  book  of  the  law,  which  Josias 
and  his  people  solemnly  swore  to  observe,  is  represented  as  a 
breach  of  the  law  of  Moses.     He  regards  the  discovered  book 
as  having  come  down  from  Moses.     Is  he  so  dull  as  to  know 
nothing  about  the  past?     He  was  alive  long  before  623.     But 
he  certainly  knew  more  than  just  the  book  of  Deuteronomy. 
In  III  Kings  xxi.  10  he  plainly  quotes  Lev.  xxiv.  16  and  Ex. 
xxii.  28   (witnesses  to  blasphemy  against  God  and  the  king). 
In  xxii.  17  he  quotes  Num.  xxvii.  17  (sheep  without  a  shepherd). 
In  IV  Kings  iv.  16  he  distinctly  refers  to  Gen.  xviii.  10,  and  in 
v.  17  he  shows  that  he  knows  of  the  altar  of  burnt  offering  in 
the  Tabernacle  (Ex.  xx.  24).     In  IV  Kings  xii.  4  there  is  a 
mention  of  money  paid  to  redeem  the  living;  therefore  the  law 
of  sacrifice  in  Num.  xviii.  16  was  known.    In  the  same  way  in 

made  to  the  law  as  written  down  by  Moses.  Vetter  acknowledges  that 
the  whole  Pentateuch  has  not  a  common  origin,  but  he  ascribes  a  large 
part  of  it  to  Moses.  Huinmelauer  (Comm.  in  I.  Deut.)  is  inclined  to 
ascribe  part  of  Deuteronomy  (xii.-xxvi.)  to  Samuel,  because  we  read  in 
I  Kings  x.  25  that  "  Samuel  told  the  people  the  law  of  the  kingdom,  and 
wrote  it  in  a  book,  and  laid  it  up  before  the  Lord."  —  It  is,  however, 
unsafe  to  disregard  the  many  passages  (at  least  ten)  in  these  chapters 
which  are  expressly  ascribed  to  Moses. 


48     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OP  THE  BIBLE 

xii.  16  trespass  and  sin  offerings  are  mentioned.  In  chapter 
xvii.  of  this  book  there  are  frequent  allusions  to  the  clauses 
of  the  Covenant  which  Yahweh  made  with  Israel  (e.  g.  v.  15  and 
v.  38).  In  xviii.  4  we  read  of  the  "brazen  serpent  which  Moses 
had  made"  (Num.  xxi.  8,  9).  In  xxiii.  9  we  hear  of  priests 
who  on  account  of  some  transgression  shared  the  food  of  the  other 
priests,  but  might  not  exercise  any  priestly  functions  (cf.  Lev. 
xxi.  21,  etc.).  In  xxiii.  21  the  Paschal  celebration  is  spoken  of, 
which  is  certainly  mentioned  in  Deut.  xvi,  but  is  far  more  clearly 
described  in  Ex.  xii.;  Deut.  xvi.  only  becomes  intelligible  when 
read  with  Ex.  xii.,  and  must  have  been  written  by  one  who 
took  for  granted  the  knowledge  of  this  chapter.  According  to 
Kautzsch,  all  the  passages  referred  to  occur  in  the  so-called 
"priests'  code,"  which  is  assumed  to  have  been  drawn  up  in 
Babylon  about  500  B.  c.  How  is  this  possible,  since  they  were 
quoted  as  early  as  the  seventh  century  before  Christ  ?  If  then  the 
author  of  the  Books  of  Kings  (who  is  rightly  believed  to  have 
been  the  prophet  Jeremias)  knew  the  Pentateuch  as  a  whole  in 
608,  and  especially  if  he  knew  those  portions  also  which  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  written  during  the  Captivity,  there  can  be 
no  ground  at  all  for  maintaining  that  Helcias  deceived  Josias 
by  forging  a  Deuteronomium,  or  that  Esdras  was  the  first  to 
foist  upon  the  people  the  "  priests'  code  "  as  a  work  of  Moses,  in 
or  about  the  year  444  B.  c.,  and  that  he  read  it  to  the  people, 
and  induced  them,  on  the  strength  of  it,  to  form  a  covenant  with 
Yahweh,  or  that  the  Pentateuch  was  not  completed  until  about 
400  B.  c. 

II.    The  Prophets  and  the  Pentateuch 

The  ancient  prophets,  upon  the  date  and  authenticity  of  whose 
writings  even  modern  criticism  has  cast  no  doubt,  refer  to  the 
Pentateuch  again  and  again,  and  also  to  those  particular  pas- 
sages which  are  supposed  to  have  been  written  during  the 
Captivity. 

Isaias  i.  11,  etc.,  speaks  of  the  sacrifices,  new  moons  and  Sab- 
baths, in  just  the  same  language  as  Exodus  xxix.,  etc.  Leviticus  i., 
etc.  (the  "priests'  code"),  Ezechiel  (iv.  14,  etc.),  complain  that 
the  people  in  heathen  lands  will  be  forced  to  eat  unclean  food 


THE    HOLY   PEOPLE  49 

(cf.  Lev.  xi.  See  also  Ezech.  vi.  4  and  cf.  Lev.  xxvi.  30).  The 
same  prophet  in  ix.  6,  etc.,  speaks  of  defilement  from  dead  bodies, 
which  violates  the  law  in  Num.  xix.  11,  etc.  This  nineteenth 
chapter  is  another  of  those  belonging  to  the  "  priests'  code " 
(cf.  also  Ezech.  xi.  20  with  Ex.  vi.  7;  Ezech.  xxii.  10  with 
Lev.  xviii.  7,  8,  19). 

Jeremias  insists  upon  keeping  holy  the  Sabbath  day  (xvii.  19, 
etc.) ;  Ezechiel  does  the  same  (xx.  13,  16,  21,  where  the  viola- 
tion of  the  Sabbath  is  mentioned  as  a  reason  for  the  punishment 
inflicted  upon  the  people).  In  spite  of  this  evidence,  the  critics 
suggest  that  the  law  regarding  the  Sabbath  is  derived  chiefly 
from  the  "priests'  code"  that  was  drawn  up  during  the  Cap- 
tivity. Osee,  writing  about  750  B.C.,  says  (i.  9)  that  Israel 
ought  no  longer  to  be  called  God's  people :  "  Call  his  name  Not 
My  People  (Lo-ammi),  for  you  are  not  my  people,  and  I  will 
not  be  yours."  There  is  plainly  a  reference  here  to  Ex.  vi.  7: 
"  I  will  take  you  to  myself  for  my  people,"  which  words  are  now 
ascribed  to  the  "priests'  code."  Compare  also  Osee  iv.  4  with 
Num.  xvi.,  a  chapter  most  of  which  is  supposed  to  belong  to  the 
"priests'  code."  Compare  further  iv.  10  with  Lev.  xxvi.  26. 
In  viii.  12  there  is  a  particularly  plain  reference  to  the  existence 
of  the  Pentateuch :  "  I  shall  write  to  him  my  manifold  laws, 
which  have  been  accounted  as  foreign.  They  shall  offer  victims, 
they  shall  sacrifice  flesh,  and  shall  eat  it,  and  the  Lord  will  not 
receive  them:  now  will  he  remember  their  iniquity,  and  will 
visit  their  sins:  they  shall  return  to  Egypt."  This  passage 
affords  absolute  proof  that  the  "priests'  code"  existed  at  the 
time  of  Osee.  Amos  (ii.  4)  reproaches  the  Jews  with  not  having 
kept  the  commandments  of  Yahweh.  In  iv.  4  he  speaks  of 
sacrifices  and  tithes  (cf.  v.  21,  etc.).1 

Micheas  (iii.  11)  finds  fault  with  the  priests  for  taking  money 
for  teaching,  and  Ezechiel  too  (vii.  26)  mentions  such  instruc- 
tion given  by  the  priests.  Now  Ezechiel,  writing  in  594  B.  c., 
might  have  referred  to  the  Deuteronomium  that  is  supposed  to 

1  That  Amos  must  have  been  acquainted  with  the  so-called  "  priests' 
code  "  has  been  proved  by  Vetter.  He  has  proved  also  that  even  Hoseas 
knew  the  Pentateuch,  and  that  the  compilation  of  it  dated  back  before 
his  time,  and  before  that  of  the  separation  of  the  kingdoms. 


50     HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 

have  been  discovered  in  623,  for  the  law  occurs  in  Deut.  xvii.  9, 
etc.  But  if  Micheas  also  speaks  of  something  forbidden  by  law, 
Deuteronomy  must  be  much  older  than  700  B.  c.,  as  Micheas 
lived  under  Achaz  and  Ezechias.  The  reference  in  Micheas  vi.  15 
to  Deut.  xxviii.  38  affords  a  similar  proof. 

When  such  quotations  from  the  prophets  are  brought  for- 
ward as  evidence  of  the  antiquity  of  the  "  priests'  code "  and 
the  whole  Pentateuch,  we  sometimes  meet  with  the  argument 
that  the  code  is  derived  from  the  prophets!  But  whence  did 
the  prophets  take  their  zeal,  their  indignation  and  their  re- 
proaches against  Israel  if  not  from  Moses?  How  could  they 
blame  the  people  so  bitterly,  and  hurl  such  denunciations  upon 
them,  and  threaten  them  with  God's  vengeance,  if  the  people 
had  no  definite  law  of  God  binding  upon  them?  If  that  were 
so,  the  prophets  would  be  simply  beating  the  air. 

AN  OBJECTION.  Cornill  says,  p.  64 :  "  Such  passages  as  Isaias 
i.  13,  14  and  Amos  v.  21-23  would  be  almost  inexplicable,  if  the 
laws  in  the  ' priests'  code'  had  been  known  to  these  men  and 
their  hearers  as  a  divine  command  and  binding  obligation.  How 
could  Jeremias  utter  the  words  in  vii.  22,  if  he  had  had  before 
him  the  books  of  Exodus,  Leviticus  and  Numbers  in  their 
present  form?" 

Let  us  examine  these  passages. 

Isaias  in  chapter  i.  directs  the  Israelites  to  the  right  path 
when  he  says  (12)  :  "Who  required  these  things  at  your  hands, 
that  you  should  walk  in  my  courts?  (13)  Offer  sacrifice  no 
more  in  vain,  incense  is  an  abomination  to  me.  The  new  moons 
and  the  Sabbaths  and  other  festivals  I  will  not  abide,  your 
assemblies  are  wicked.  (14)  My  soul  hateth  your  new  moons 
and  your  solemnities,  they  are  become  troublesome  to  me." 

Amos  v.  21.  "  I  hate,  and  have  rejected  your  festivities,  and 
I  will  not  receive  the  odor  of  your  assemblies.  (22)  And  if 
you  offer  me  holocausts  and  your  gifts,  I  will  not  receive  them. 
(23)  Take  away  from  me  the  tumult  of  thy  songs,  and  I  will 
not  hear  the  canticles  of  thy  harp." 

Jeremias  vii.  22.  "I  spoke  not  to  your  fathers  and  I  com- 
manded them  not,  in  the  day  that  I  brought  them  out  of  the 
land  of  Egypt,  concerning  the  matter  of  burnt  offerings  and 


THE   HOLY   PEOPLE  51 

sacrifices;  (23)  but  this  thing  I  commanded  them,  saying, 
'  Hearken  to  my  voice,  and  I  will  be  your  God,  and  you  shall 
be  my  people.' * 

It  is  maintained  by  some  that  these  passages  prohibit  sacri- 
fices and  festivals,  and  that  the  prophets  were  indignant  at  such 
things  as  being  a  heathen  element  in  the  worship  of  Yahweh  — 
hence  the  "priests'  code"  enjoining  such  forms  of  worship  (es- 
pecially Exodus,  Leviticus  and  Numbers  in  their  present  form) 
could  not  have  existed  when  the  prophets  used  these  words. 
"All  these  prophets  fail  to  find  words  enough  to  express 
Yahweh's  hatred  of  sacrifice  and  all  formal  worship"  (Volck,  36). 

But  any  unprejudiced  reader  will  easily  perceive  that  what 
is  condemned  as  wrong  by  all  the  prophets  is  the  merely  ex- 
ternal worship  of  God,  since  He  demands  not  so  much  exterior 
homage  as  interior  submission  and  righteousness  of  life.  The 
words,  however,  actually  prove  that  before  the  Captivity,  in  the 
time  of  Isaias,  Amos  and  Jeremias,  the  sacrificial  worship  was 
regularly  performed.  If,  however,  these  passages  are  regarded 
as  sufficient  proof  that  the  "priests'  code"  did  not  exist  in  the 
eighth,  seventh  and  sixth  centuries  before  Christ,  the  following 
words  from  the  Psalter,  which,  according  to  modern  criticism, 
belongs  to  a  period  long  after  the  Captivity  (Kautzsch,  AHes 
Testament,  Beilage  130,  etc.)  would  prove  that  the  code  was 
still  non-existent  in  the  fifth,  fourth,  third  and  second  cen- 
turies. In  Ps.  xlix.  (Vulg.)  9,  etc.,  we  read:  "I  will  not  take 
calves  out  of  thy  house,  nor  he-goats  out  of  thy  flocks.  Eor  all 
the  beasts  of  the  woods  are  mine,  the  cattle  on  the  hills  and 
the  oxen.  ...  If  I  should  be  hungry,  I  would  not  tell  thee, 
for  the  world  is  mine  and  the  fulness  thereof.  Shall  I  eat  the 
flesh  of  bullocks  ?  or  shall  I  drink  the  blood  of  goats  ?  "  Simi- 
lar passages  occur  in  Ps  xxxix.  7,  etc.,  1.  18.  Kautzsch  (loc. 
cit.,  Beilage  207)  thinks,  indeed,  that  these  psalms  may  be- 
long to  an  earlier,  prophetic  period.  But  if  the  men  who 
collected  the  psalms,  often,  as  he  assumes,  made  serious  al- 
terations in  their  original  form,  and  if,  when  they  lived,  the 
exterior  liturgical  forms  of  worship  were  regarded  "  as  the  chief 
and  absolutely  indispensable  proof  of  a  disposition  pleasing  to 
God"  (ibid.  209),  what  could  hinder  these  persons  from  sup- 


52     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

pressing  such  passages  as  these,  which  must  have  seemed  to 
them  very  objectionable? 

If,  however,  the  Psalter  recognizes  and  emphasizes  the  fact 
that  outward  sacrifices  cannot  please  God,  unless  accompanied 
by  the  right  inward  dispositions,  ought  not  the  same  inter- 
pretation to  be  assigned  to  the  prophets'  utterances?  (cf.  Is. 
Iviii.  3,  etc.). 

5.   REFUTATION-  FROM  THE  SAMARITAN  PENTATEUCH 

The  mixed  race  of  the  Samaritans  possessed  the  Pentateuch, 
but  in  a  form  that  differs  frequently  from  the  Masoretic  text, 
and  has  more  points  of  agreement  with  the  Septuagint  version, 
that  existed  long  before  the  time  of  our  Lord.  This  fact  and  the 
use  of  the  old  Semitic  characters  in  which  it  was  written  and 
is  still  preserved  and  used  by  the  few  remaining  Samaritans, 
are  proofs  of  its  great  antiquity.  When  did  the  Samaritans 
obtain  possession  of  it? 

There  are  three  answers  possible  to  this  question. 

1.  The  usual  opinion  at  the  present  day  is  that  the  law 
became  known  to  the  Samaritans  about  the  time  of  Esdras  and 
Nehemias,  or  perhaps  at  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
Josephus  Flavius  records  in  his  "Antiquities"  (XI,  viii.  2), 
that  a  priest  from  Jerusalem,  Manasses  by  name,  was  exiled  in 
consequence  of  having  broken  the  law,  and  joined  the  Samari- 
tans. With  the  aid  of  his  father-in-law  Sanaballat,  governor  of 
Samaria,  he  built  a  temple  on  Mount  Garizim,  and  instituted 
the  worship  of  Yahweh.  Josephus  says  that  this  occurred  in 
the  time  of  Alexander;  but  Nehemias  relates  a  very  similar 
story  as  belonging  to  his  own  lifetime  (xiii.  28).  In  speaking 
of  the  reprehensible  custom  of  taking  foreign  wives,  he  says  that 
even  a  priest,  one  of  the  sons  of  Joiada,  the  son  of  Eliasib,  the 
high  Driest,  had  married  the  daughter  of  Sanaballat  the  Horo- 
nite,  and  he  adds :  "  I  drove  him  from  me."  It  seems  quite 
improbable  that  the  Sanaballat  mentioned  by  Nehemias  was  not 
the  same  man  as  the  Sanaballat  mentioned  by  Josephus,  and 
that  on  two  occasions,  separated  by  no  long  interval  of  time, 
a  member  of  the  high  priest's  family  should  have  married  the 


THE    HOLY   PEOPLE  53 

daughter  of  a  Samaritan  ruler  named  Sanaballat,  and  was  there- 
fore excluded  from  all  priestly  duties  at  Jerusalem.  It  seems 
fairly  certain  that  Josephus  has  made  a  mistake ;  he  is  not  quite 
trustworthy  with  regard  to  the  history  of  Esdras  and  Nehemias. 
However,  whether  it  was  about  430  or  about  330  B.  c.  that  a 
priest  left  Jerusalem  for  Samaria,  it  is  assumed  that  when  the 
Samaritan  temple  was  built  on  Garizim,  a  form  of  worship 
conformable  to  Jewish  usage  was  instituted,,  and  that  part  of 
the  service  consisted  in  reading  the  Book  of  the  Law,  which  this 
priest  Manasses  is  said  to  have  carried  with  him  from  Jerusalem. 

2.  According  to  IV  Kings  xvii.  24,  etc.,  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  northern  kingdom  in  722,  the  king  of  Assyria  sent 
people  from  the  region  of  the  Euphrates  to  occupy  Samaria, 
and  they  mingled  with  the  remainder  of  the  Israelites.     That 
some  Israelites  were  left  there  is  clear  from  Jeremias  xli.  5; 
II  Chronicles  xxxiv.  9,  21,  and  also  from  the  Book  of  Judith, 
which  (even  if  it  were  not  canonical)  is  certainly  based  upon 
historical  traditions.1    In  the  sparsely  populated  country  in  the 
north,  wild  beasts  increased  so  rapidly  that  lions  made  their  way 
into  the  villages.    This  was  regarded  as  a  punishment  inflicted 
upon  the  heathen  colonists  for  not  worshiping  Yahweh,  the  God 
of  the  country,  but  their  own  deities.    Consequently,  a  priest  was 
sent  back  home  from  the  number  of  those  in  captivity  in  Assyria, 
in  order  to  instruct  the  people  in  the  worship  of  Yahweh.    For 
this  purpose  the  priest  may  have  provided  himself  with  a  book 
of  the  law,  which  thenceforth  remained  in  use  in  Samaria. 

3.  The    Samaritans   may   have   possessed   the   book   of   the 
law  before  the  separation  of  the  two  kingdoms,  and  have  retained 
it  after  that  event.     Although  King  Jeroboam  drove  out  the 
lawful  priests  and  Levites  and  introduced  the  worship  of  idols, 
some  faithful  servants  of  Yahweh  were  no  doubt  left  in  the 
northern  kingdom,  as  we  see,  for  instance,  from  the  story  of 
Tobias,  which,  even  if  it  were  purely  fictitious,  would  neverthe- 
less bear  witness  to  the  feelings  of  the  population  of  the  north, 
as  does  the  activity  of  Amos  and  Osee,  the  prophets,  who  re- 
proached Samaria  with  having  fallen  away  from  the  right  wor- 

1  In  the  same  way  some  Jews  were,  after  588,  left  in  Juda,  for  not  all 
the  people,  not,  for  instance,  old  men,  children  and  the  sick,  were  removed. 


54     HANDBOOK   FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 

ship  and  threatened  the  country  with  God's  vengeance.    Nahum, 
who  was  zealous  for  Yahweh's  honor,  came  from  the  north. 

This  last  explanation  seems  by  far  the  best ;  for  (a)  immedi- 
ately after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Captivity,  the 
Samaritans  asked  to  be  allowed  to  take  part  in  building  the 
Temple,  saying :  "  We  seek  your  God  as  you  do,  and  have  sacri- 
ficed to  him"  (Esdras  iv.  2,  etc.).  They  knew,  therefore,  the 
religious  institutions  of  the  Pentateuch,  (b)  When  their  re- 
quest was  not  granted,  they  developed  bitter  hostility  against 
the  Jews,  which  lasted  for  centuries,  and  still  existed  in  the 
time  of  our  Lord,  so  that  it  is  inconceivable  that  they  still  re- 
ceived and  accepted  religious  books  from  them. 

(c)  If  they  had  received  the  Book  of  the  Law  long  after  the 
Captivity,  through  Manasses  the  priest,  it  could  hardly  have 
been  in  the  old  Hebrew  script,  which  the  Samaritans  have  pre- 
served to  the  present  day,  but  in  square  characters.    According 
to  Jewish  tradition,  Esdras  brought  these  square  characters  or 
Assyrian  writing  back  with  him  from  exile.     We  read  in  the 
Talmud:    "The  Law  was  originally  given  to  the  Israelites  in 
Hebrew  script  and  in  the  holy  language.     It  was  given  the 
second  time  in  the  days  of  Esra  in  Assyrian  writing."     Origen 
and  Saint  Jerome  adopt  this  statement.     In  opposition  to  this 
tradition  it  is  useless  to  argue  that  the   Samaritans  received 
the  Pentateuch  in  the  old  Hebrew  script  from  the  Jews  about 
the  year  400  (Benzinger,  Arch'dologie,  287),  for  this  statement 
would  first  have  to  be  proved. 

(d)  How  can  the  fact  be  accounted  for  that  the  Samaritans 
possess  only  the  Pentateuch  and  a  mutilated  version  of  Josue, 
if  they  received  the  holy  book  from  the  Jews  long  after  the 
Captivity?     Modern  criticism  assumes  that  the  historical  part 
of  the  Pentateuch  was  united  with  Josue,  Judges,  Samuel  and 
Kings,  about  561  B.  c.,  so  as  to  form  one  body  of  sacred  litera- 
ture;   why,  then,  did  the  Samaritans  receive  a  comparatively 
small  part  of  it?     And  why  have  they  none  of  the  prophetic 
writings,  which  at  that  date  had  long  been  held  in  honor  by 
the  Jews? 

(e)  We  have  an  account  of  Manasses  taking  refuge  with  the 
Samaritans,  and  of  the  building  of  the  temple  on  Garizim,  but 


THE    HOLY   PEOPLE  55 

there  is  no  record  of  any  transfer  of  a  book  of  the  law.  "  Neither 
Nehemias  nor  Josephus  says  a  word  about  the  Pentateuch  in 
this  connection "  (Keuss,  381). 

(/)  In  Jerusalem  there  would  have  been  taken  all  precautions 
against  allowing  the  apostate  to  obtain  the  holy  book.  "Was  it 
so  badly  guarded  that  he  could  steal  it?  Would  not  this  theft 
have  been  a  constant  ground  of  reproach  against  the  Samari- 
tans? There  is  no  trace  of  anything  of  the  kind. 

(g)  It  would  not  be  to  the  interest  of  the  apostate  priest  to 
take  with  him,  and  to  introduce  into  Samaria,,  a  book  the  pre- 
cepts of  which  he  had  himself  transgressed  by  his  marriage,  as 
it  would  contain  his  own  condemnation. 


6.   KEFUTATION  FROM  ORIENTAL  EECORDS 

(a)  The  chief  weapon  of  the  modern  critics  is  "divergence 
of  authorities."  When,  however,  they  attempt  to  apply  this 
principle  to  the  subject  of  the  Deluge  they  are  found  to  be  un- 
trustworthy and  wholly  misleading.  The  account  of  this  event,  as 
given  in  Genesis  vi.-ix.,  is  supposed  to  have  been  derived  partly 
from  the  Yahvist  and  partly  from  the  "  priests'  code."  The 
Chaldasan  Genesis,  however,  discovered  by  Smith,  an  English- 
man, in  cuneiform  characters  at  Mnive,  and  published  by  him, 
contains  all  the  essential  features  of  the  Bible  narrative.1  "  Di- 
vergence of  authorities"  ought,  therefore,  to  be  applied  also  to 
the  Chaldaean  work,  which  formed  part  of  the  library  belonging 
to  King  Asurbanipal  of  Assyria  (667-626).  If  that  work  is 
inadmissible,  we  may  say  the  same  of  Genesis. 

(&)  It  has  been  proved  that  the  proper  names  occurring  in 
the  Pentateuch,  which  in  their  construction  bear  witness  to 
monotheism,  are  not,  as  Wellhausen  asserts,  of  very  late  in- 
vention, but  that  names  of  quite  similar  meaning  (e.g.  "my 
God  knoweth,"  "my  God  hath  heard")  were  used  long  before 
the  time  of  Moses  by  some  of  the  western  Semites  in  Asia  Minor. 
These  tribes  of  Arab  origin  won  supremacy  over  Babylon,  and 
hence  similar  names  occur  also  in  polytheistic  Babylon.  They 

1  Two  other  texts  of  the  Babylonian  account  of  the  Deluge  are  in 
existence. 


56     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

prove  (1)  that  monotheism  belongs  to  a  period  long  anterior 
to  the  prophets  and  Moses,  and  (2)  that  the  five  books  of  Moses 
containing  these  proper  names  are  much  older  than  modern 
criticism  will  allow.1 


B.   GOD   AND   THE  GODS   IN   ISRAEL 
1.   MONOTHEISM  AND  POLYTHEISM 

In  the  history  of  antiquity  we  everywhere  meet  with  the 
worship  of  God,  but  as  the  deity  is  worshiped  differently  in 
different  places,  it  has  been  assumed  by  modern  students  of 
religion  that  polytheism  was  the  original,  and  that  monotheism 
was  a  later  development,  as  generally  what  is  imperfect  pre- 
cedes what  is  perfect;  the  latter  developing  from  the  former. 
This  opinion  is,  however,  erroneous.  In  the  lives  of  nations,  as 
of  individuals,  there  may  be  a  falling  away  from  good  to  bad. 
Polytheism  is  a  degeneration  of  the  earliest  religion  of  mankind, 
and  hints  of  this  decay  are  given  plainly  enough  in  the  stories 
of  a  golden  age,  stories  that  are  of  almost  universal  occurrence 
among  all  nations,  and  therefore  certainly  contain  a  grain  of 
historical  truth.  We  have,  moreover,  the  generally  accepted 
axiom  that  the  plural  presupposes  a  singular. 

It  is  indeed  true  that  ancient  nations  generally  worshiped 
several  gods,  but  amidst  the  plurality  of  gods  there  is  always 
a  glimmer  of  the  original  idea  of  one  true  God.  Even  the  name 
of  this  one  God  exists  in  similar  forms  among  many  nations. 
El  of  the  Israelites  is  the  same  as  Ilu  of  the  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians,  Allah  of  the  Arabs  and  Alloho  of  the  Syrians.  In 
the  Turin  "Book  of  the  Dead/'  that  goes  back  to  nearly  3000 
years  before  Christ  and  supplies  us  with  the  earliest  recorded 
doctrines  of  the  Egyptians,  we  read :  "  There  is  One  most  Holy, 

1  With  all  the  preceding  portion  of  this  section  of  the  book  (pp. 
37-56)  cf.  Lex  mosaica,  an  excellent  work.  The  authors,  eminent  Eng- 
lish scholars  and  theologians,  succeed  in  proving  that  the  whole  history 
of  the  Jews  depends  upon  the  Mosaic  Law,  which  reappears  in  the  pro- 
phetic writings.  Many  other  scholars,  for  instance  Cornill  who  once 
supported  radical  criticism,  are  now  disposed  to  pay  due  regard  to  tradi- 
tion in  many  respects. 


THE   HOLY   PEOPLE  57 

Creator  of  the  world  in  its  fullness.  He  sees  as  you  see,  hears 
as  you  hear,  stands  as  you  stand.  Suffer  me  to  praise  the 
Architect,  who  hath  made  the  fullness  of  the  universe;  who 
caused  all  things  on  the  earth  and  beyond  the  world  to  come 
into  being  in  due  time,  who  hath  fashioned  them  for  me."  But 
when  Moses  lived  there  were  eight  elementary  deities  recog- 
nized by  this  ancient  and  highly  civilized  nation.  In  Babylonia 
originally  one,  and  only  one,  local  deity  was  honored  in  each 
town,  but  a  plurality  of  gods  was  recognized  from  the  time  when 
the  various  districts  were  united  into  one  monarchy ; 1  and  the 
deities  were  all  classed  together  in  the  same  way  as  the  towns 
and  people.  The  same  thing  happened  in  Eome;  and  this  is 
how  polytheism  originated. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  we  know  of  no  nation,  either 
in  ancient  or  modern  times,  completely  devoid  of  religious 
faith.  Atheism  and  materialism  have  always  appealed  only  to 
individuals.  It  is  almost  equally  remarkable,  however,  that 
among  most  nations  the  worship  of  the  one  true  God  perished, 
and  that  even  among  the  most  civilized  peoples  religious  wor- 
ship was  perverted.  The  former  fact  can  be  explained  only  by 
accepting  a  very  early  revelation,  which  was  never  completely 
forgotten,  but  in  remote  times  was  more  fresh  in  men's  minds. 
The  latter  has  several  causes : 

(1)  Man  cannot  and  will  not  live  without  God.  His  re- 
ligious feelings  need  satisfaction,  and  whenever,  in  consequence 
of  human  transgression,  the  true  God  is  no  longer  recognized, 
man  seeks  his  god  in  the  stars,  in  thunder  and  lightning,  in 
wood  and  stone.  (2)  True  religion  at  all  periods  has  required 
strict  control  of  the  passions.  Heathen  religions,  on  the  con- 
trary, have  taken  the  sensual  inclinations  of  mankind  under 
their  protection,  and  thus  have  won  ready  acceptance.  (3) 
Demoniacal  influences  have  played  their  part.  The  fallen  angels 
wished  to  be  equal  with  God,  and  having  failed  in  this  attempt 
in  Heaven,  they  tried  to  win  divine  honors  for  themselves  on 
earth.  Just  as  the  devil  contributed  to  the  sin  of  the  first 
human  beings,  so  he  has  promoted  the  errors  of  mankind  in 

1  Hammurabi  became  the  first  overlord  in  about  2100  B.  c.,  when  Abra- 
ham left  Ur,  his  native  place  (Gen.  xi.  34;  Jos.  xxiv.  2). 


58     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

later  periods.  The  devils  would  not  relinquish  the  influence 
that  they  had  once  secured  in  Paradise  (Deuteronomy  xxxii.  17). 
The  faithless  Israelites  in  the  wilderness  "sacrificed  to  devils 
and  not  to  God"1  (Psalms  xcv.  5).  "All  the  gods  of  the 
Gentiles  are  devils."2  The  Fathers  of  the  Church  held  the 
same  opinions.  (4)  Another  reason  for  the  repeated  lapses  of 
the  Israelites  into  idolatry  was  the  example  of  the  Chanaanites 
and  other  heathen  neighbors,  as  all  around  heathen  worship  pre- 
vailed with  its  seductive  charm.  Many  kings,  too,  set  a  bad 
example;  those  of  the  northern  kingdom  especially  had  a  po- 
litical ground  for  opposing  the  worship  of  the  true  God.  If 
their  people  had  no  religious  interest  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem 
and  ceased  to  visit  it,  they  would  lose  also  their  affection  for 
David's  line,  that  ruled  in  Jerusalem  (IV  Kings  xii.  27). 

2.   WORSHIP  OF  THE  STARS 

Probably  the  earliest  form  of  degeneration  undergone  by  the 
original  monotheism  was  the  worship  of  stars,  known  as  Sabaism, 
from  N32T  ==  host  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  It  occurred  occa- 
sionally among  the  Israelites.  In  Deuteronomy  xvii.  3  it  is 
strictly  forbidden,  as  opposed  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God, 
and  the  penalty  of  death  by  stoning  was  imposed  upon  any  who 
practiced  it.  In  the  Book  of  Job  (xxxi.  26)  the  holy  man  de- 
clares that  he  has  never  worshiped  the  heavenly  bodies.  "  If  I 
beheld  the  sun  when  it  shined,  and  the  moon  going  in  brightness  ; 
and  my  heart  in  secret  hath  rejoiced,  and  I  have  kissed  my 
hand  with  my  mouth,  which  is  a  very  great  iniquity,  and  a 


1  According  to  the  Hebrew  words    0"l#S  in3r  this    passage   means 
literally  "  they  sacrificed  to  the  destroyers  "  (from  "Nfr  =  "ntf,  to  attack 
violently,  to  ruin).     The  Septuagint  translated  eOvaav  datpoldis,  and  un- 
derstood thereby  the  gods  of  the  heathen,  who,  in  contrast  to  the  true 
God,  could  only  bring  disaster.     This  is  only  possible  if  they  are  self- 
conscious  beings,  hostile  to  God,  viz.  evil  spirits. 

2  Hebrew  D^Vx  (from  S«,  not)  =  nothings,  vanitates.    But  the  Sep- 
tuagint renders  the  word  3cu/t<5j>ia,  according  to  the  meaning  given  it  by 
their  countrymen.     That  the  Jews  were  well  aware  who  was  the  object 
of  idolatrous  worship  appears  from  their  designating  the  prince  of  the 
devils  by  the  name  of  the  false  god  Beelzebub  (Matt.  ix.  34;    Mark  iii. 
22;    Luke  xi.  15). 


THE    HOLY   PEOPLE  59 

denial  against  the  most  high  God."  From  Ezechiel  viii.  16,  17 
we  learn  that  the  worshiper  turned  his  face  towards  the  rising 
sun,  keeping  a  branch  before  his  eyes,  probably  as  a  token  of 
gratitude  for  the  growth  of  plants.  From  Jeremias  xix.  13 
we  see  that  incense  was  burnt,  and  from  Job  (loc.  cit.)  that  it 
was  the  custom  to  kiss  the  hand  to  the  sun. 

3.   WORSHIP  OP  IMAGES 

"Thou  shalt  not  make  to  thyself  a  graven  thing,  nor  the 
likeness  of  anything  that  is  in  heaven  above  or  in  the  earth 
beneath,  nor  of  those  things  that  are  in  the  waters  under  the 
earth"  (Ex.  xx.  4).  The  reason  for  this  prohibition  was  the 
danger  of  idolatry  that  prevailed  generally.  Especially  in  Egypt 
the  Israelites  had  witnessed  idolatrous  worship,  and  hence  in 
the  wilderness  they  attempted  to  worship  the  true  God  under 
the  form  of  a  golden  calf;  just  as  the  Egyptians  worshiped 
the  deity  under  the  form  of  a  bull.  The  same  thing  occurred 
in  the  schismatic  kingdom  of  Samaria.  Jeroboam  I,  who  had 
lived  in  Egypt  in  his  youth,  caused  two  golden  calves  to  be 
made,  one  to  stand  in  Dan,  and  the  other  in  Bethel,  as  repre- 
sentations of  Yahweh  (IV  Kings  xii.  29).  The  prophets  vigor- 
ously opposed  this  design,  and  denounced  it  as  being  idolatrous 
(Amos  iii.  14;  v.  5;  Osee  iv.  15;  viii.  5).  Other  images  of 
gods  were  the  teraphim,  little  domestic  deities,  mentioned  as 
early  as  the  times  of  the  Patriarchs  and  Judges  (Gen.  xxxi.  19; 
Judges  xvii.  5;  xviii.  31),  and  there  was  also  the  statue 
Kijjun,  a  representation  of  the  planet  Saturn,  which  the 
Israelites  carried  with  them  in  the  wilderness  (Amos  v.  26; 
Acts  vii.  43)  and  is  often  identified  with  Moloch  or  Kronos. 

The  prohibition  only  referred  to  figures  intended  to  represent  the  true 
God  or  other  deities,  for  in  Lev.  xxvi.  1,  it  has  the  addition  "  to  worship 
it."  Figures  having  no  religious  significance  were  not  prohibited;  cheru- 
bim were  set  up  near  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  and  brazen  cattle  near  the 
laver  in  the  Temple.  At  a  later  period  the  Jews  extended  the  prohibition 
to  all  figures,  and  would  not  even  allow  the  Roman  soldiers  to  enter 
Jerusalem  with  eagles  on  their  standards.  This  aversion  on  the  part  of 
the  Jews  passed  on  to  Islam.  It  is  well  known  that  Leo  III,  the  Isaurian, 
encouraged  iconoclasm  among  the  Christians,  in  his  anxiety  to  conciliate 
Jews  and  Mahometans  (726-841). 


60     HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 

Other  deities,  repeatedly  worshiped  by  the  Israelites,  were  of 
Chanaanite,  Assyrian  or  Egyptian  origin. 


4.    CHANAANITE  DEITIES 

1.  The  chief  god,  common  to  all  Chanaanite  tribes,  was  Baal 
or  Bel,1  i.  e.  the  Lord,  and  especially  the  husband.  He  was 
honored  as  personifying  the  procreative  and  propagating  prin- 
ciple in  nature,  but  he  was  also  thought  of  as  a  natural  force 
tending  both  to  preserve  and  to  destroy.  His  worship  varied 
at  different  periods  and  in  different  places.  Therefore  there 
were  several  Baals  (I  Cor.  viii.  5,  tcvpioi  TroXXot). 

Babylon  was  the  original  home  of  this  cultus.  In  Holy 
Scripture  there  is  mention  of: 

(a)  Baal-berith  =  Baal  of  the  Covenant.  A  temple  in  Sichem 
was  dedicated  to  the  god  under  this  name. 

(&)    Baal-semes  =  Baal  as  sun-god. 

(c)  Baal-sebub  =  Beelzebub  =  Baal  of  the  flies.    Under  this 
name  he  was  worshiped  in  Accaron    (Ekron),  a  city  of  the 
Philistines.     He  was  believed  to  have  power  to  bring  swarms 
of  destructive  flies  and  to  remove  them  again.     The  Israelites 
in  later  times,  who  detested  idolatry,  gave  this  name  to  the  chief 
of  the  devils,  and,  through  the  similarity  in  sound,  they  seem 
often  to  have  called  him  Beelsebul,  i.  e.  lord  of  the  dwelling, 
because  he  chose  human  bodies  as  his  habitation,  for  the  name 
is  given  in  this  form  in  the  Gospels. 

(d)  Baal-peor,  probably   so   called  from   the  hill   Peor   or 
Phegor   situated   opposite   Jericho.     This   god   was   worshiped 
by  the  Moabites. 

There  were  originally  no  figures  of  Baal,  but  upright  pillars 
(chammanim  or  mazzeboth)  served  to  mark  the  sites  of  his 
worship;  later,  however,  he  was  represented  in  human  form. 


Chald.  S#3,  abbreviated  S?  ;  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions 
Bil.  After  the  introduction  of  polytheism  the  name  was  used  to  desig- 
nate the  chief  of  the  gods,  as  were  the  names  Zeus  and  Jupiter.  Here, 
too,  a  trace  of  the  primitive  monotheism  remains.  —  The  frequently  men- 
tioned name  Marduk  (in  the  Bible  Merodak  or  Merodach)  was  only  an- 
other expression  for  Bel.  Marduk  was  primarily  the  god  worshiped  at 
Babel. 


THE    HOLY   PEOPLE  61 

The  so-called  Tyrian  Herakles  is  really  a  statue  of  Baal.  He 
was  known  also  as  Melkart,  i.  e.  the  city  king.  According  to 
Miillenhof  (Deutsche  Altertumskunde,  I,  69)  Herakles  him- 
self is  not  of  Greek  origin,  but  both  the  legends  about  him  and 
his  cultus  came  to  the  Greeks  from  the  East. 

2.  The  chief  female  deity  of  the  Chanaanites,  occupying  a 
position  like  that  of  Baal,  was  Axhtoreth;  the  meaning  of  her 
name  is  uncertain.  Its  Greek  form  is  'Aa-Taprrj,  and  in  the 
Vulgate  it  is  spelled  Astarthe.  Another  name  for  the  same  god- 
dess is  Aschera  (rntfK—  happiness).  She  represents  the  female 
principle  in  nature,  i.  e.  nature  herself,  as  conceiving  and  bring- 
ing forth  ever  new  forms  of  life.  There  were  originally  no  real 
statues  of  this  deity,  but  wooden  columns,  called  Ascherim  or 
Ascheroth,  marked  her  cultus.  They  stood  on  mountains  and 
hills,  or  among  trees  with  thick  foliage,  for  which  reason  the 
Septuagint  and  Vulgate  translate  the  word  Aschera  by  "  wood  " 
or  "  grove."  They  generally  were  placed  near  the  altars  to  Baal, 
but  were  shaped  differently  from  the  stone  pillars  dedicated  to 
the  god.  Astarte  was  subsequently  often  represented  as  a  cow,  or 
as  a  woman  with  a  cow's  head,  or  with  a  human  head  and  cow's 
horns.  The  worship  of  this  goddess  was  very  obscene;  men  and' 
women  gave  themselves  up  to  obscenity  in  her  honor.  She  had 
persons  specially  dedicated  to  her,  ge deschim  and  gedeschot  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  15).  Christian  chastity  dedicated  to  God  stands  out  in 
beautiful  contrast  to  her  worship,  which  did  not,  however, 
originate  in  western  Asia,  but  was  introduced  from  the  lands 
near  the  Euphrates,  as  was  probably  also  the  cultus  of  Baal. 
From  Phoenicia  it  spread  westward  to  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans.  Hence  Astarte  is  to  be  identified  with  Baaltis  or  Beltis 
of  the  Babylonians  (also  called  Bilit  or  Mylitta),  also  with 
Istar  of  the  Assyrians,  with  the  Syrian  goddess  Anaitis,  with  the 
Greek  Aphrodite  and  the  Eoman  Venus.  On  account  of  her 
cow's  horns  the  western  nations  sometimes  honored  her  as  Luna 
or  Juno,  as  the  horns  suggested  a  crescent  moon.  The  Israelites 
very  early  adopted  her  worship,  as  may  be  seen  from  Judges  ii. 
13;  x.  6;  II  Kings  iii.  4;  xii.  10.  Out  of  deference  to  his 
Phoenician  wives,  Solomon  afterwards  transferred  her  cultus  to 
Jerusalem. 


62     HANDBOOK   FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 

3.  The  worship  of  Tammus  1  seems  to  have  been  connected 
with  the  service  of  Baal,  and  had  its  chief  seat  in  the  Phoenician 
town  of  Biblos.     This  cultus,  too,  spread  from  Phoenicia  to 
the  west;    first  to  Cyprus  and  then  to  Greece,  where  the  god 
was  known  as  Adonis  =  my  Lord.    Under  the  Jewish  kings  his 
worship  was  introduced  into  Jerusalem,  for  Ezechiel  says  that 
the  women  in  the  Temple  mourned  over  Adonis  or  Tammus 
(Ezech.  viii.  14).     The  idea  underlying  this  cultus  is  the  ex- 
pression of  sorrow  for  the  decay  and  death  of  the  powers  of 
nature  in  the  autumn,  and  of  joy  over  their  re-awakening,  as 
soon  as  the  sun  turns  again  to  the  north.    In  spring,  therefore, 
there  was  a  joyful  festival  and  in  late  autumn  a  time  of  mourn- 
ing, when  women  especially  gave  themselves  up  to  sorrow  and 
lamentation  over  the  loss  of  Adonis.    Ezechiel  tells  us  that  the 
Israelites  observed  the  time   of   mourning,  but  it   cannot  be 
proved  from  Holy  Scripture  that  they  also  celebrated  the  joyful 
festival. 

4.  In  the  Old  Testament  (first  in  Lev.  xxvi.  30),  especially 
in  the  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles,  but  also  in  the  Prophets, 
we  read  of  a  worship  on  high  places  which  is  censured  (bama  = 
height,  plural  bamoth).    It  is  well  known  that  the  Chanaanites, 
who   worshiped  nature,   preferred   to   celebrate   their   rites    on 
natural  or  artificial  hills,  which  became  the  scenes   of  great 
revelry.    The  Israelites  copied  the  Chanaanite  custom  and  also 
chose  hills  on  which  to  worship   their  God.     This  was   very 
natural,  as  the  true  God  had  appeared  to  them  on  Mount  Sinai ; 
but  soon  heathen  practices  and  obscenity  crept  into  their  cere- 
monies, and  consequently  the  prophets  sternly  denounced  them, 
and  pious  kings  destroyed  these  high  places. 

5.  The    two    Philistine    deities,    Dagon    and    Derketo    (Gr. 
'ArapyaTis),    bore    some    resemblance    to    Baal    and    Astarte. 
Both  were  represented  with  the  bodies  of  fish,  and  human  heads 
and  hands.     Dagon,  the  male  deity,  symbolized  water  and  the 
procreative  forces  of  nature,  which  are  rendered  active  by  means 
of  water.    The  female  deity,  Derketo,  is  supposed  to  represent 
the  power  of  the  earth  to  absorb  moisture,  and  as  a  result  to 
produce  living  things. 

-    The  meaning  of  the  name  is  obscure. 


THE    HOLY   PEOPLE  63 

It  would  be  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  cultus  of  these  deities  in 
Philistsea  was  connected  with  its  proximity  to  the  sea;  but  the  monu- 
ments and  records  of  the  lands  near  the  Euphrates  show  representations 
of  Dagon,  proving  that  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  also  honored  this 
god.  That  his  cultus  was  not  limited  to  Philistsea  appears  from  the  oc- 
currence of  the  name  Bethdagon  in  the  territory  of  Juda  and  Aser  (Jos., 
Antiq.,  XV,  41;  XIX,  27).  An  Atargateion,  or  temple  of  Atargatis,  ex- 
isted in  the  district  east  of  the  Jordan  in  the  time  of  Judas  Machabaeus, 
and  was  destroyed  by  him  (II  Mach.  xii.  26  in  the  Septuagint).  The 
name  Dagon  is  certainly  connected  with  dag,  a  fish ;  Atargatis  or  Derketo 
appears  to  be  another  expression  for  Astarte,  just  as  Dagon  represented 
one  definite  side  of  the  Baal  worship. 


5.   ASSYRIAN  AND  BABYLONIAN  DEITIES 

1.  The  god  Moloch  (i.  e.  king),  also  called  Milkom  or  Mal- 
kom,  is  often  mentioned  in  Holy  Scripture,  and  was  honored 
in  western  Asia  as  early  as  the  time  of  Moses.  In  Leviticus  xviii. 
21  the  Israelites  are  warned  against  him.  He  is  generally  spoken 
of  as  the  false  god  of  the  Moabites,  but  Chamos  (i.  e.  ruler), 
the  god  of  the  Ammonites,  is  identical  with  him  (Num.  xxi.  29; 
Judges  xi.  24;  III  Kings  xi.  5);  and  Orotal  (—  God's  fire) 
mentioned  by  Herodotus  as  the  fire-god  of  the  Edomites  may 
also  be  regarded  as  the  same  deity.  To  please  his  heathen  wives, 
Solomon  built  shrines  to  him  on  the  Mount  of  Olives  (III 
Kings  xi.  7  and  33),  but  they  were  intended  only  for  the  king's 
wives  and  for  foreigners  in  general.  The  Israelites,  however, 
themselves  worshiped  Moloch  in  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  south  of 
Jerusalem,  as  we  read  in  many  places,  especially  in  Jeremias. 
Holy  Scripture  records  also  (IV  Kings  xvii.  31)  that  the 
colonists  from  the  Euphrates,  who  settled  in  Samaria  after  the 
downfall  of  the  northern  kingdom,  offered  children  in  sacrifice 
to  their  national  god  Moloch,  whom  they  called  Adramelech 
(splendor  of  the  king)  or  Anamelech  (King  Anu).  This  fact 
shows  that  the  cultus  of  Moloch,  like  that  of  Baal,  was  intro- 
duced from  Assyria  and  Babylonia.  It  was  intended  to  empha- 
size one  special  aspect  of  the  worship  of  Baal,  viz.  the  honoring 
of  the  destructive  and  therefore  fearful  forces  of  nature.  That 
Moloch  was  well  known  in  Assyria  appears  from  inscriptions 
on  monuments  that  still  exist,  on  which  the  name  Anamalech 
(King  Anu)  very  frequently  occurs. 


64     HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OP  THE  BIBLE 

The  worship  of  Moloch  consisted  chiefly  in  the  sacrifice  of 
children.  In  order  to  appease  the  dread  deity,  people  offered 
him  their  children,  their  most  precious  possession.  Even  King 
Achaz  (IV  Kings  xvi.  3)  offered  his  own  son  to  Moloch  in 
the  valley  of  Hinnom.  The  statue  of  the  god  was  of  metal, 
and  probably  in  human  form;  it  was  hollow  inside,  and  was 
made  red  hot  with  fire.  Then  living  children  were  laid  upon 
the  outstretched  arms  of  the  figure,  so  that  they  rolled  into  the 
open  mouth  and,  falling  into  the  midst  of  the  fire,  were  burned 
to  death.1  The  idea  underlying  this  cultus  is  that  time  destroys 
all  existing  things  as  well  as  produces  them.  Hence  Moloch 
is  identical  with  Kronos  and  Saturn,  a  god  of  the  west,  who 
devours  his  own  offspring. 

2.  "We  read  of  King  Achaz  in  Holy  Scripture  (IV  Kings  xvi. 
10)  that  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  he  set  up  an  idolatrous 
altar  resembling  an  Assyrian  one  that  he  had  seen  in  Damascus, 
and  caused  sacrifices  to  be  offered  upon  it.     It  seems  that  he 
did  not  intend  to  honor  any  particular  god  by  this  means,  but 
wished  to  propitiate  the  deities  in  general,  who  had  raised  the 
Assyrians  to  such  power  and  dignity.     "The  gods,"  he  said, 
"  of  the  kings  of  Syria  help  them,  and  I  will  appease  them  with 
victims,  and  they  will  help  me,"  but  the  passage  concludes, 
"  whereas  on  the  contrary  they  were  the  ruin  of  him  and  of 
all  Israel  (II  Chron.  xxviii.  23). 

3.  In  IV  Kings  xvii.  30  Holy  Scripture  tells  us  that  the 
immigrants  into  Samaria  from  the  east  honored  the  God  of 
Israel  as  god  of  the  country,  but  retained  their  heathen  deities 
as   well.     Besides   Moloch    (Adramelech   and   Anamelech),   to 
whom  the  people  of  Sepharvaim  (i.  e.  Sebarim,  Ezech.  xlvii.  16) 
sacrificed  children,   mention  is   made   of    (a)    Sochothbenoth, 

1  Diodorus  Siculus  describes  the  statue  of  this  god  at  Carthage  as  fol- 
lows :  "  There  was  a  brazen  statue  of  Kronos,  in  human  shape,  stretch- 
ing its  hands  upwards  and  somewhat  sloping,  so  that  children,  laid  upon 
them,  rolled  down  and  fell  into  its  throat,  which  was  full  of  fire." 
Raschi  (Jarchi),  the  rabbinical  commentator,  says  on  Jer.  vii.  31: 
"  Moloch  was  made  of  brass  and  heated  from  below.  The  hands  were 
stretched  out  and  glowed  with  heat,  and  the  child  was  laid  upon  them 
and  burned  up,  shrieking  all  the  while;  but  the  sacrificing  priests  made 
a  noise  with  kettledrums,  so  that  the  father  could  not  hear  its  cries.? 


THE    HOLY   PEOPLE  65 

(6)  Nergal,  (c)  Asima,  (d)  Nibhaz  (Nebahaz),  (e)  Thartak. 
Nothing  is  known  as  to  the  worship  of  these  gods.1 


6.  EGYPTIAN  DEITIES 

1.  In  Egypt  there  was  a  worship  of  animals,  which  were 
adored  as  symbols  of  the  deity.    The  Israelites  while  in  Egypt 
had  become  familiar  with  their  cultus,  and  so  in  the  desert, 
wishing  to  honor  the  god  who  had  brought  them  out  of  Egypt, 
they  represented  him  as  a  calf,  no  doubt  remembering  the  wor- 
ship of  Apis.     This  did  not  imply  a  falling  away  from  the 
true  God,  and  Aaron  proclaimed  that  the  ceremony  should  be 
regarded  as  held  in  honor  of  Yahweh  (Ex.  xxxii.).    It  appears, 
however,  that  the  people  only  desired  the  sensual  pleasures  con- 
nected with  the  heathen  worship  and  with  the  sacrifices  per- 
formed at  that  time;    therefore  the  occurrence  was  declared 
sinful  and  sternly  censured,  and  was  not  regarded  as  a  par- 
donable mistake. 

2.  In  Ezechiel  viii.  we  read  that  shortly  before  the  destruction 
of  the  kingdom  of  Juda,  the  Israelites,  fearing  the  Babylonians, 
tried  to  win  the  favor  of  the  Egyptians  by  again  adopting  the 
worship  of  Egyptian  gods.     Animal  worship  revived,  this  time 
in  direct  antagonism  to  the  service  of  the  true  God.    If  Ezechiel's 
narrative  is  to  be  understood  literally,  this  idolatrous  cultus  was 
carried  on  actually  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem;   it  is,  however, 
possibly  not  intended  to  be  thus  understood.    The  prophets  often 
denounced  a  mere  inclination  towards  heathen  nations  and  a 


1  According  to  Erasmus  Nagl :  Sochothbenoth  =  Zakmuku  Zarbanit, 
i.e.  a  solstice  festival  in  honor  of  Marduk  and  his  spouse  Zarbanit;  the 
names  may  have  been  abbreviated  in  the  common  dialect.  The  people  of 
Cutha  (Assyrian:  Kutu,  a  town  north  of  Babel,  now  Till  Ibrahim)  made 
a  Nergal;  he  was  a  sun-god,  also  ruler  of  war  pestilence  and  hell.  The 
men  of  Emath  (Chamath,  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  Chamati,  now  Chama) 
worshiped  Asima,  i.  e.  the  old  Chanaanite  deity  Esmun-Thammus,  the 
god  of  death  and  resurrection;  Emath  is  mentioned  in  Gen.  x.  18  as  a 
Chanaanite  settlement.  The  Hevites  (Avvites)  honored  Nibhaz  and  Thar- 
tak. They  were  a  tribe  of  Chanaanite  origin,  and  so  their  gods  are  also 
Chanaanite  (see  pp.  19  and  21)  (Gen.  x.  17).  Nibhaz  is  called  in  the 
Septuagint  'EjSXafe'p,  which  is  probably  a  corrupt  form  of  Baal-azar= 
Baal  is  our  help.  Thartak  seems  to  be  the  same  as  Derketo  or  Atargatis. 


66     HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF   THE   BIBLE 

desire  to  seek  help  from  them  instead  of  from  God  as  worship 
of  heathen  deities. 

On  account  of  their  obstinate  falling  away  from  the  'true  God,  Moses 
had  threatened  the  people  with  the  penalty  of  exile  from  the  Promised 
Land  and  even  of  losing  this  land  altogether  (Deut.  xxviii.  63;  xxx.  18). 
These  threats  were  fulfilled  when  they  were  carried  into  captivity;  but 
the  punishment  had  the  wholesome  result  of  making  the  Jews  thenceforth 
abhor  idolatrous  worship  of  false  gods.  After  their  return  from  Babylon, 
they  showed  so  little  tendency  towards  it  that  every  attempt  by  the 
Syrian  King  Antiochus  Epiphanes  to  introduce  the  cultus  of  other  gods 
amongst  the  Jews  remained  completely  unsuccessful. 


C.   THE   RELIGIOUS   INSTITUTIONS   OF   ISRAEL 

Religious  antiquities  are  generally  discussed  under  four  head- 
ings: (1)  holy  places,  (2)  holy  persons,  (3)  sacred  ritual,  (4) 
sacred  seasons. 

SOURCES  OP  INFORMATION 

(a)  Principal  Sources  of  Information.  These  are  primarily 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  especially  the  historical  books  of  the  Old 
Testament. 

Next  in  importance  are  the  works,  not  included  in  the  Bible, 
of  Jewish  writers  of  the  same  period  as  the  Bible.  There  are, 
unfortunately,  very  few  of  these,  and  they  are  not  earlier  than 
the  time  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles.  We  may  mention  par- 
ticularly the  works  of  Philo  and  of  Josephus  Flavius,  both  of 
whom  wrote  in  Greek. 

Philo  was  born  in  Alexandria  in  25  B.  c.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  Jewish  priest,  lived  in  Alexandria  and  received  there  a 
comprehensive  Greek  education.  He  employed  the  knowledge 
thus  acquired  in  writing  books  intended  to  defend  and  expound 
Judaism  for  the  benefit  of  pagan  readers.  His  chief  works  are : 
The  Life  of  Moses;  The  Creation;  The  Decalogue;  Circum- 
cision ;  Sacrifices. 

The  writings  of  Josephus,  who  bore  the  Roman  cognomen 
Flavius,  are  still  more  important.  He,  too,  was  the  son  of 
a  Jewish  priest,  and  was  born  in  Jerusalem  in  37  A.  D.  His 
works,  written  in  Rome,  far  from  Palestine,  and  after  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem,  are  nevertheless  most  valuable,  especially 


THE    HOLY   PEOPLE  67 

for  the  later  period,  of  which  the  Bible  does  not  give  much 
account.  They  are :  History  of  the  Jewish  War,  in  seven  books ; 
Jewish  Antiquities,  in  20  books ; *  two  books  against  the  Sophist 
Apion,  and  the  history  of  his  own  life. 

(b)  Secondary  Sources  of  Information.  The  foremost  of 
these  is  the  Talmud  (from  lamad,  to  learn,  hence  the  book  of 
learning,  or  doctrine).  For  the  Jews  this  is  by  far  the  most 
important  book  after  the  Bible ; 2  it  consists  of  two  parts,  the 
Mishna  and  the  Gemara.  The  first  part,  which  forms  the 
Talmud  strictly  so  called,  is  the  Mishna  (from  schana,  to  repeat, 
hence  it  is  the  repetition  of  the  Law).  This  is  in  Hebrew,3  and 
contains  a  collection  of  the  earliest  Jewish  traditions,  written 
down  at  the  end  of  the  second  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century  by  Eabbi  Juda  Hakkadosch,  head  of  the  school  at 
Tiberias,  in  order  to  preserve  them  from  being  forgotten  or 
tampered  with.4  Explanations  were  added  later,  and  these  form 

1  In  the  "Antiquities,"  XVIII,  iii.  3,  Josephus  speaks  of  Christ,  in 
whom  he  did  not  himself  believe.  The  passage  is  as  follows:  "At  this  time 
lived  Jesus,  a  wise  man,  if  indeed  we  may  call  him  a  man;    for  he  was  a 
worker  of  miracles  and  a  teacher  to  those  who  gladly  receive  the  truth. 
He  had  many  followers,  both  Jews  and  Gentiles,  and  was  regarded  as  the 
Messias.    In  consequence  of  the  envy  of  our  rulers  he  was  condemned  by 
Pilate  to  be  crucified.     Nevertheless  those  who  had  formerly  loved  him 
remained  loyal  to  him,  for  he  showed  himself  to  them  alive  again  on  the 
third  day.    This  and  many  other  wonderful  things  had  been  foretold  con- 
cerning him  in  the  writings  of  the  prophets,  and  hitherto  the  sect  of 
Christians,  taking  its  name  from  him,  has  not  ceased  to  exist."     Many 
critics  have  pronounced  this  passage  to  be  a  forgery,  but  it  bears  every 
token  of  being  genuine. 

2  The  Jews  maintain  that  everything  taught  by  our  Lord  may  be 
found  also  in  the  Talmud ;   this  book,  however,  is  of  later  origin  than  the 
New  Testament.     It  is  based  not  only  upon  the  oral  teaching  of  the 
Rabbis,  but  has  also  written  sources.    Much  in  it  is  pure  gold,  but  inter- 
mixed with  worthless  matter. 

8  i.  e.  in  modern  Hebrew,  which  bears  the  same  relation  to  biblical 
Hebrew  as  is  borne  by  the  Latin  of  mediaeval  scholars  to  that  of  the 
Roman  classical  authors. 

*  Rabbi  Juda  divided  his  writings  into  six  sections  (sedarim,  arrange- 
ments )  :  viz.  ( 1 )  seder  ser'im  =  seed  section,  containing  all  relating  to 
husbandry,  i.  e.  explanations  of  the  laws  regarding  it ;  ( 2 )  seder  mo'ed  = 
of  festivals  (Sabbath,  Pasch,  Day  of  Atonement,  etc.)  ;  (3)  seder  naschim 
=  of  women,  marriage  laws;  (4)  seder  nesigin  =  of  injuries  (damage  to 
property,  compensation,  trials,  etc. )  ;  ( 5 )  seder  qodaschim  =  of  holy 
things  (regulations  for  sacrifice);  (6)  seder  theharoth  =  purifications 


68     HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

the  second  part  of  the  Talmud,  viz.  the  Gemara  (from  gamar, 
Aramaic  gemar,  to  complete,  hence  conclusion,  completion) .  This 
part  is  in  Aramaic  and  falls  into  two  portions,  the  Jerusalem 
and  the  Babylonian.  The  former  originated,  like  the  Mishna, 
in  the  school  at  Tiberias,  and  was  compiled  by  Eabbi  Jochanan 
(189-279).  It  is  in  the  West  Aramaic  dialect.  The  Babylonian 
Gemara  is  much  longer  and  is  in  East  Aramaic,  a  dialect  akin 
to  the  Syrian.  It  was  brought  from  Babylon,  where  there  had 
always  been  many  Jews,  ever  since  the  Captivity,  and  where 
they  had  famous  schools.  It  was  written  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
centuries,  and  was  the  joint  work  of  several  Eabbis  (Asche, 
Jose,  etc.).1 

(Levitical  uncleanness,  ablutions,  bathing,  etc.).  The  Gemara  also,  both 
in  the  Palestine  and  in  the  Babylonian  portions,  shows  the  same  division 
into  sections. 

1  The  Gemara  is  often  called  simply  the  Talmud,  so  that  we  hear  of  the 
Palestine  and  the  Babylonian  Talmud.  Cf.  Monumenta  Judaica:  I  Bib- 
liotheca  Targiunica,  II  Bibliotheca  Talmudica.  Vienna  and  Leipzig. 


FIRST   SECTION 

HOLY  PLACES 
I.    THE   TABERNACLE 

1.   GENERAL  DESCRIPTION 
(Exodus  xxvi.) 

AT  God's  command  Moses  employed  skillful  workmen  to 
erect  a  tent  temple  on  Sinai,  according  to  the  plan  revealed 
to  him  by  God.  This  was  called  the  Dwelling  (mischkan)  or 
Tabernacle.1  This  tent  was  entered  from  the  east  and  was 
divided  into  two  parts,  the  Holy  and  the  Most  Holy  places.  It 
formed  a  long  quadrangle,  and  its  length  (interior)  was  30 
cubits,2  its  breadth  10  cubits  and  its  height  10  cubits;  it  was 
made  of  a  wooden  framework,  composed  of  48  strong  planks  3 
or  beams  of  acacia  wood.*  Each  plank  was  covered  with  gold, 
and  measured  10  cubits  in  length  and  1%  in  breadth.  This 
wooden  frame  surrounded  the  interior  on  three  sides,  but  on 
the  fourth  side  were  columns  and  a  curtain.  The  two  side 
walls  contained  20  planks  each,  the  shorter  end  wall  only  8. 

1  In  the  Vulgate  it  is  called  tabernaculum  fcederis  or  tabernaculum 
testimonii.    In  the  Septuagint,  ffwn  rov  fiaprvpiov ;    in  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
"  Tent  of  the  Agreement,  Tent  of  the  Testimony,  Dwelling  of  the  Testi- 
mony." 

2  An  ell  or  cubit  is  the  length  from  the  point  of  the  middle  finger  to 
the  elbow  =  six  handbreadths  or  two  spans ;    about  half  a  yard. 

*  The  Hebrew  D'EHD   (from  ff"}P,  to  cut  off)   is  generally  translated 
planks.     The  word,  however,  only  signifies  something  cut  or  hewn  of 
wood,  as  in  Ezech.  xxvii.  6.     In  the  Septuagint  it  is  rendered  <TTV\OI, 
pillars.    The  Vulgate  has  (less  accurately)  tabulw.    The  word  might  be 
translated  beams  or  uprights. 

*  Hebrew,  "  wood  of  schittim."    This  is  the  plural  of  schittah  =  the 
genuine  acacia.  Mimosa  nilotica.     The  tree  grew  to  a  considerable  size 
and  its  wood  was  very  durable  and  at  the  same  time  very  light.     This 
wood  was  to  be  used  because  the  acacia  is  the  only  tree  that  thrives  in 
the  valleys  of  Sinai. 


70     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 

Each  plank  must  have  been  a  cubit  in  thickness,  so  that  the 
two  at  the  ends  of  the  shorter  wall  were  flush  with  those  at  the 
ends  of  the  long  walls.1  At  the  lower  end  of  each  plank  were 
two  projections 2  which  fitted  into  silver  sockets,  and  on  the 
outer  side  were  strong  golden  rings,  five  on  each  beam,  through 
which  were  passed  the  gilded  bars  that  kept  all  the  planks  in 
place,  and  so  kept  the  whole  erection  together.  On  the  front 
side  stood  five  gilded  pillars  of  acacia  wood  with  artistic  capitals. 
These  pillars  rested  on  brazen  sockets  and  supported  a  curtain, 
through  which  the  Tabernacle  was  entered.  The  curtain  was 
arranged  thus :  At  the  top  of  the  pillars  were  golden  hooks  hold- 
ing up  gilded  rods  to  which  the  curtain  was  fastened.  In 
the  inside  was  another  curtain  dividing  the  Tabernacle  into  two 
parts,  the  Holy  and  the  Most  Holy  Places.  It  hung  down  from 
four  gilded  pillars,  resting  on  silver  sockets.  The  inner  por- 
tion, which  was  the  Most  Holy  Place,  measured  10  cubits  in 
length,  breadth  and  height ;  the  Holy  Place  had  the  same  breadth 
and  height,  but  was  20  cubits  in  length. 

The  bare  earth  formed  the  floor,  nor  had  the  Tabernacle  any 
wooden  roof,  the  place  of  which  was  taken  by  coverings  stretched 
over  the  framework.  These  coverings  were  four  in  number 
(Ex.  xxvi.). 

The  lowest  covering  was  the  most  magnificent.  It  consisted 
(Ex.  xxvi.  1,  etc.)  of  ten  cloths  or  curtains  of  white  linen,  fine 
but  strong,  prepared  in  such  a  way  that  on  the  white  ground 
cherubim  could  be  artistically  worked  with  thread  of  a  violet, 
dark  red  and  bright  red  color.  Each  of  the  ten  curtains  was 
28  cubits  long  and  4  wide,  and  they  were  joined  together 
in  two  sets  of  five,  so  as  to  form  two  large  curtains  each 
measuring  28  by  20  cubits,  and  the  whole  covering  that  they 


1  The  transport  of  such  solid  wooden  pillars  from  one  encampment  to 
another  must  have  caused  great  difficulty,  though  there  was  not  so  much 
hurry  as  in  our  day  and  in  our  countries.  According  to  Num.  vii.  4,  etc., 
the  heavier  articles  were  laid  on  wagons  drawn  by  oxen. 

3  As  beams  measuring  1%.  cubits  in  breadth  were  perhaps  difficult  to 
obtain,  it  may  be  assumed  that  each  consisted  of  two  parts,  firmly  fas- 
tened together  —  the  "  two  projections  "  seem  to  suggest  this.  Accord- 
ing to  the  reports  of  missionaries,  however,  even  at  the  present  time  the 
acacia  furnishes  very  substantial  wood  for  building  purposes  in  China. 


HOLY   PLACES  71 

formed  together  was  40  cubits  long  and  28  wide.  We  are  not 
told  how  the  five  separate  parts  of  each  half  were  composed; 
but  we  know  that  each  of  the  two  at  the  end  of  the  curtains  had 
50  violet  loops,  placed  opposite  to  one  another,  and  fastened 
together  by  means  of  50  golden  pins,  which  gripped  them  on 
either  side.  This  covering  was  arranged  over  the  holy  Taber- 
nacle so  that  the  join  down  the  middle  lay  precisely  above  the 
inner  curtain.  It  must  therefore  have  hung  down  8  cubits 
on  the  two  long  sides  (north  and  south)  and  9  cubits  at  the 
back,  behind  the  Most  Holy  Place.  It  was  probably  fastened 
down  to  the  earth  by  means  of  pegs.1 

The  second  covering  was  less  precious.  It  was  woven  of  goats' 
hair,  and  was  composed  not  of  10,  but  of  11  pieces,  each  of  which 
was  30  cubits  long  and  4  wide.  Its  total  extent,  therefore,  was 
30  by  44  cubits.  It,  too,  consisted  of  two  parts,  the  front  one 
being  made  of  6  pieces  and  the  back  one  of  only  5.  These  two 
parts  were  fastened  together  by  means  of  50  loops  and  50  brass 
clasps,  so  as  to  form  one  whole.  The  part  consisting  of  5  pieces 
was  spread  over  the  Most  Holy  Place,  and  that  of  6  pieces  over 
the  Holy  Place.  One  piece  hung  over,  and  this  was  folded  back 
and  doubled  on  the  front  of  the  Tabernacle,  to  gain  more 
solidity,  so  that  it  measured  only  2  cubits,  and  projected  for 
a  space  of  1  cubit,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  shelter  over  the 
entrance.  At  the  other  end  of  the  tent  this  covering  extended 
1  cubit  beyond  the  former,  and  this  was  the  case  also  at  the 
sides,  so  that  the  second  covering  was  a  protection  to  the  inner- 
most one,  stretching  1  cubit  beyond  it  in  all  directions.  The 
fastenings,  where  the  two  halves  were  joined  together,  cannot 
apparently  have  been  exactly  above  the  entrance  to  the  Most 
Holy  Place,  but  about  half  a  yard  behind  it. 


1  If  the  planks  were  each  1  cubit  in  thickness,  the  covering  could 
not  have  hung  down  more  than  8  cubits,  rather  than  9,  at  the  west 
end.  That  it  hung  outside  is  very  probable,  as  this  was,  and  still  is,  the 
usual  arrangement  for  tents,  and  moreover  there  would  have  had  to  be 
some  special  means  of  securing  it  on  the  inner  side,  and  no  such  thing  is 
mentioned.  The  pegs  (or  pins)  and  cords  of  the  Tabernacle  are  referred 
to  in  Ex.  xxvii.  19;  xxxv.  18;  xxxviii.  20  and  31.  The  space  thus  formed 
under  the  coverings  could  be  used  for  the  storage  of  utensils  and  as  a 
sleeping  place  ( I  Kings  iii.  3 ) . 


72     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

The  two  outer  coverings  are  mentioned  in  Holy  Scripture,  but 
are  not  fully  described.  The  lower  one  of  these,  i.  e.  the  third 
covering,  consisted  of  rams'  skins  dyed  red,1  the  upper,  or  fourth 
covering,  of  tachasch  skins.2  The  tachasch  was  probably  the 
sea-cow  found  in  the  Bed  Sea,  and  now  called  Manati;  some 
authorities,  however,  believe  that  the  badger  is  meant,  as 
tachasch  =  to  penetrate,  creep  in;  and  the  badger  lives  in 
holes  in  the  earth.  We  may  reasonably  suppose  that  the 
Tabernacle  was  not  always  erected  with  all  these  four  cover- 
ings over  it,  but  that  often  one  sufficed.  The  innermost  ap- 
pears to  have  been  intended  chiefly  as  an  ornament;  the  others 
served  as  protections  against  dust  and  storms. 

The  two  curtains  separating  the  Holy  and  Most  Holy  Places 
formed  each  a  square,  measuring  10  cubits  in  each  direction. 
They  were  made  of  the  same  materials  as  the  first  or  innermost 
covering,  but  whereas  the  inner  curtain  also  bore  pictures  of 
cherubim,  the  outer  one  had  none,  but  was  only  embroidered 
in  colors. 

2.   THE  COURT  OP  THE  TABEBNACLE 
(Ex.  xxvii.  9,  etc.) 

The  Tabernacle  that  has  just  been  described  was  always  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  by  a  court.  This  was  marked  off  on  the 
outer  side  by  a  wall  of  curtains,  5  cubits  in  height.  The 
court  was  100  cubits  long  and  50  broad;  on  the  north  and 
south  sides  stood  20  pillars,  and  on  the  east  and  west  sides  10. 
These  had  brass  sockets  and  their  capitals  were  covered  with 
silver.  Silver  rods  resting  on  hooks  kept  them  in  place,  and 
supported  the  curtains,  which  were  made  of  strong  linen,  and 
ran  round  the  whole  court,  not,  however,  touching  the  ground, 
but  being  secured  on  the  outer  side  by  means  of  stakes  (Ex. 
xxvii.  19).  Towards  the  east  the  curtains  projected  only  15 
cubits  beyond  the  corners,  so  as  to  leave  in  the  center  a  space 

1  Vulgate,  de  pellibus  arietum  rubricates;    Septuagint,  tepuara  Kptuv 


3  In  the  Septuagint  the  name  is  given  as  Stpfiara  va.Klv6i.va.  ;    in  the 
Vulgate,  ianthince  pelles  =  violet-colored  hides. 


HOLY   PLACES  73 

20  cubits  wide,  that  served  as  the  entrance.  This  was  closed 
by  another  curtain  embroidered  with  colors,  5  cubits  high 
and  20  broad,  hanging  from  four  pillars.  It  took  the  place 
of  a  door. 

The  holy  tent  was  probably  not  erected  quite  in  the  middle 
of  the  courtyard,  but  nearer  to  its  western  than  to  its  eastern 
end.  Philo  says  that  the  two  sides  and  the  back  were  all  at 
the  same  distance,  viz.  20  cubits,  from  the  outside  boundary 
of  the  court,  so  that  the  open  space  in  front  of  the  Tabernacle 
formed  a  square  of  50  cubits. 

Modern  critics  outside  the  Church  declare  the  whole  account  of  the 
Tabernacle  to  be  a  fiction.  "  We  have  to  deal  here  not  with  historical 
facts  but  with  unrestrained  fancy  "  ( Benzinger,  397 ) .  As  in  later  times 
only  the  Temple  in  Jerusalem  was  the  recognized  place  of  worship,  and 
as  the  performance  of  religious  rites  on  high  places  and  all  sacrifices 
outside  the  Temple  were  strictly  forbidden,  the  authors  of  the  "  priests' 
code  "  invented  the  story  of  the  Mosaic  Tabernacle,  as  if  Moses  wished 
God  to  be  served  in  only  one  place  and  had  made  these  regulations  to 
secure  this  end.  "  It  is  impossible  that  an  uncivilized  nomadic  nation 
could  have  erected  such  a  magnificent  shrine  in  the  wilderness."  "  An 
additional  argument  against  the  truth  of  the  story  is  its  inexactitude." 

On  the  other  hand  the  Egyptians  were  skillful  craftsmen,  and  them- 
selves erected  temples  of  similar  construction.  Why  may  we  not  believe 
that  they  imparted  their  skill  to  the  Israelites?  The  latter  nation  had 
not  come  out  of  Egypt  in  a  state  of  destitution  (Ex.  xxxiii.  24,  25,  29), 
so  it  is  easy  to  account  for  the  abundance  of  costly  materials.1  The  wood 
that  they  used  for  building  is  said  to  have  been  that  of  the  genuine  acacia 
or  schittah;  if  the  story  of  the  Tabernacle  had  been  drawn  from  the 
imagination  of  men  in  later  times,  the  wood  mentioned  would  certainly 
have  been  that  of  the  cypress  or  cedar,  as  known  in  Palestine.  In  fact, 
Philo  understands  schittah  to  mean  cedar  wood.  This  fact  alone  is 
enough  to  convince  us  that  the  Tabernacle  really  existed  and  was  made 
on  Sinai  (cf.  p.  69,  note  4).  The  alleged  inexactitudes  in  the  descrip- 
tion vanish  if  a  right  explanation  is  given,  and  the  "unrestrained 
fancies  "  prove  to  be  on  the  side  of  the  modern  critics,  who  always  dis- 
cover what  they  want  to  find.1 

1  Cf.  also  Num.  xxxi.  22,  where  we  read  that  the  Israelites  plundered 
the  Madianites  of  the  wealth  of  their  mines. 

2  Wellhausen  feels  obliged  to  recognize  the  existence  of  a  tent  cover- 
ing the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  but  he  will  not  admit  that  it  is  identical 
with  the  one  described  in  Exodus  xxvi.    Passages  containing  clear  refer- 
ence to  the  Tabernacle,  such  as  Judges  xviii.  31,  I  Kings  i.  9,  i.  24,  ii.  22, 
xxi.  7,  II  Kings  vii.  6,  are  arbitrarily  pronounced  suspicious,  and  ex- 
plained as  later  interpolations  (cf.  Kautzsch,  Altes  Testament). 


74     HANDBOOK  FOE   THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

THE   SACRED   FURNITURE   AND   UTENSILS 
3.    FURNITURE  IN  THE  COURT  OF  THE  TABERNACLE 

In  the  court  stood  the  altar  of  burnt  offering  or  holocausts, 
and  the  laver. 

1.  The  altar  of  holocausts  (Ex.  xxvii.  1-8;   xxxviii.  1,  etc.) 
consisted  of  a  framework  of  acacia  wood,  5  cubits  in  length  and 
breadth  and  3  cubits  in  height.     The  frame  was  hollow  and 
was  filled  up  with  earth  and  stones,  so  that  the  latter  formed 
the  altar  proper.     The  wooden  sides  were  covered  with  brass,1 
and  provided  at  the  corners  with  four  brazen  horns.2    Half-way 
up  the  altar,  i.  e.  at  a  height  of  1%  cubits  from  the  ground,  ran 
a  projecting  ledge  about  a  cubit  in  breadth,  having  at  its  outer 
edge  a  copper  grating  or  network  resting  on  the  ground;  brass 
rings  were  attached  to  the  four  corners.     This  ledge  served  for 
the  priests  to  stand  on,  so  that  they  might  more  easily  perform 
their  duties  at  the  top  of  the  altar.     The  fire  on  this  altar, 
which  consumed  the  victims,  was  never  allowed  quite  to  die 
out   (Lev.  vi.  9,  12,  13).     "This  is  the  perpetual  fire  which 
shall  never  go  out  on  the  altar." 

2.  The  brazen  laver,  made  of  metal  mirrors   (Ex.  xxx.  17- 
21;    xxxviii.  8),  stood  between  this  altar  and  the  Tabernacle, 
a  little  to  the  south.    It  is  not  clearly  described  in  Holy  Scrip- 
ture, but,  on  the  analogy  of  the  great  basin  in  the  Temple,  we 
may  imagine  it  to  have  been  shaped  like  a  cauldron,  and  of 
considerable  size.     Probably  there  were  openings  and  taps  at 
the  sides  for  letting  out  the  water  when  necessary,  as  it  was  used 
for  washing  the  priests'  hands  and  feet,  whenever  they  entered 
the  Tabernacle,  and  also  to  cleanse  the  flesh  of  the  sacrifice,  and 
the  sacrificial   vessels   and  garments   if  they  happened  to  be 


=  something  dense  or  hard;  i.e.  metal.     The  name  is  always 
given  to  CBS  cyprium  =  cyprian  brass,  or  copper  with  its  alloys. 

2  These  horns  suggest  that  the  altar  and  the  sacrifices  were  means  of 
averting  the  punishments  inflicted  by  God  and  also  attacks  from  ene- 
mies, as  an  animal  defends  itself  with  its  horns.  Hence  "  horn  "  often 
means  power,  strength,  security,  confidence  ;  e.  g.  I  Kings  ii.  1  ;  II  Kings 
xxii.  3;  Ps.  xvii.  3;  Luke  i.  69.  They  have  nothing  to  do  with  the 
representation  of  the  deity  in  the  form  of  an  ox,  as  Benzinger  imagines. 


HOLY   PLACES  75 

stained.  There  was  below  the  laver  a  base  of  brass  to  receive  the 
water  that  flowed  out  of  it  (Ken).1  Among  the  other  furniture 
of  the  courtyard  we  have  mention  made  of  pots  to  hold  the 
ashes,  tongs,  forks  and  censers.  Besides  there  must  certainly 
have  been  the  apparatus  required  for  slaughtering  the  victims 
and  for  skinning  them;  and  tables  on  which  the  flesh  of  the 
sacrifice  could  be  laid,  such  as  were  used  later  in  the  Temple. 

4.   FURNITURE  IN  THE  HOLY  PLACE 

Three  things  stood  here:  the  candlestick,  the  table  for  the 
loaves  of  proposition  or  shewbread,  and  the  altar  of  incense. 
1.    The  golden  candlestick  (Ex.  xxv.  31,  etc.)  stood  sideways 

1  The  correct  explanation  of  the  words  in  Ex.  xxxviii.  8  is  doubtful: 

•Vi'sn  n«  &JH  :TH)D  SIIK  nns  «q*  I#K  nfc:j'2m  nfcona  ntfrq  tea  r»\  n^'ru 

The  Septuagint  renders  them:  ical  tirolriffe  rbv  Xovrypa  rbv  xaX/coO^  teal  rty 
(3dcru>  avrov  xa^K^v  ^K  r^>v  Karbirrpuv  r&v  vtjffrevffaffuv,  ai  frforevo-av  irapd.  TTJS 
06pas  TTJS  <ncr)VTjs  TOV  paprvpiov.  Vulgate :  Fecit  et  labrum  wneum  cum  basi 
sua  de  speculis  mulierum,  quce  excubabant  in  ostio  tabernaculi.  It  seems 
certain  that  the  word  r\iO¥  denotes  women  who  took  some  kind  of 
part  in  the  service  of  the  Tabernacle.  Knobel  (Ex.,  p.  332)  suggests 
that  these  were  Levite  women,  who  visited  the  sanctuary  from  time  to 
time,  in  order  to  wash,  clean  and  polish  it;  he  says  that  figures  of 
such  women  occur  on  basins.  If  he  is  right,  we  ought  to  translate: 
"  He  made  the  brazen  laver  and  its  brazen  base  with  figures  of  serving 
women.  .  .  ."  But  figures  of  women  with  brooms,  etc.,  would  not 
probably  be  considered  suitable  for  the  sanctuary.  The  Hebrew  HK^D 
and  K&ToiTTpov,  mean,  not  figure,  but  mirror.  It  is  more  likely  that 
women  are  referred  to,  who  lived  austere  lives  near  the  Tabernacle,  and 
sometimes  were  employed  there,  perhaps  in  baking,  and  in  making  the 
priests'  garments.  Cf.  II  Mach.  iii.  19,  where,  in  the  account  of  the 
plundering  of  the  Temple,  mention  is  made  of  "  shut  up  "  virgins  ( al 
KaraKKiiaroi  TUV  rrapetvav )  who  sought  by  their  prayers  to  avert  the  sacri- 
lege. The  Septuagint  translators  must  have  been  guided  by  some  tradition, 
when  they  rendered  the  Hebrew  3  (=  by,  by  means  of,  with)  by  IK,  and 
K3K  by  vT]<TTev<a  (=  to  fast,  abstain).  The  sons  6f  Heli  were  said  to  have 
sinned  by  behaving  ji  an  unseemly  way  towards  such  women  (I  Kings 
ii.  22 ) .  Jephte  seems  to  have  placed  his  daughter  among  these  women  in 
consequence  of  his  vow  (Judges  xi.  31).  The  mirrors  belonging  to  such 
persons  might  have  been  attached  to  the  laver,  in  order  that  the  priests 
could  always  see  whether  their  clothes  and  faces  were  properly  clean; 
but  this  would  probably  have  been  stated  in  the  Hebrew  in  a  separate 
clause.  It  is  most  likely  that  these  women  offered  their  metal  mirrora 
as  the  material  out  of  which  the  laver  was  made.  This  is  the  Vulgate 
interpretation,  and  Kautzsch  takes  the  same  view. 


76     HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

on  the  south  side  of  the  Holy  Place.  It  was  of  beaten  work 
of  the  finest  gold  (therefore  not  massive),  and  it  had  seven 
branches,  the  one  in  the  middle  rising  straight  up,  and  the  others 
being  in  pairs  on  either  side  of  it.  The  central  shaft  rested 
upon  a  pedestal  called  in  Holy  Scripture  jarek,  i.  e.  hip  or  loin ; 
the  name  seems  to  have  been  selected  because  there  were  prob- 
ably feet  lower  down,  whilst  the  upper  part  suggested  a  body 
with  outstretched  arms.  On  the  branches  were  ornaments  like 
the  cup  of  a  flower,  consisting  of  a  knob  and  a  blossom.  These 
were  placed  on  the  central  shaft  below  the  points  where  the  arms 
branched  off,  and  also  at  the  place  where  the  shaft  joined  its 
pedestal.  Moreover,  each  side  branch  bore  three  such  ornaments, 
so  that  there  were  twenty-two  in  all.  At  the  upper  ends  were 
lamps,  but  these  did  not  actually  form  part  of  the  candlestick, 
and  only  rested  on  the  seven  branches.  In  shape  they  probably 
resembled  the  ordinary  lamps  of  antiquity;  that  is  to  say,  they 
were  oval,  having  at  one  end  a  projecting  wick  and  at  the  other  a 
handle  by  which  they  could  be  carried.  At  the  ends  of  the  seven 
arms  were  slight  depressions  to  hold  them.  The  lamps  cast  their 
light  inwards,  towards  the  "  side  of  the  Countenance "  on  the 
north.  Every  morning  they  had  to  be  taken  down  to  be  cleaned, 
and  then  were  replaced.1  The  purest  olive  oil  was  burned  in 
these  lamps.  As  accessories  are  mentioned  (Ex.  xxv.  38)  golden 
tongs  (probably  snuffers)  and  dishes  to  hold  the  snuffers  and 
wicks. 

2.  The  table  of  the  bread  of  proposition  or  shewbread  (Ex. 
xxv.  23-30)  stood  on  the  north  side  of  the  sanctuary,  opposite 
the  candlestick.  It  was  of  acacia  wood,  measuring  2  cubits 
long,  1  cubit  wide  and  1%  cubits  high,  and  completely  cov- 
ered with  sheets  of  gold.  At  the  top  was  a  projecting  ledge 
of  gold  ( misger eth  =  enclosure)  as  wide  as  a  man's  hand,  so 
that  the  surface  of  the  table  lay  below  it,  and  round  about  this 
margin  ran  a  golden  garland.  To  the  legs  of  the  table  four  rings 

1  It  is  uncertain  whether  the  lamps  burned  constantly,  day  and  night. 
Josephus  Fl.  (Antiq.,  VI,  iii.  9)  agrees  with  the  Rabbis  in  saying  that 
by  day  only  three  were  alight,  but  at  night  all  seven.  While  Lev.  xxiv. 
4  states  that  they  were  always  (tamid)  to  be  burning,  it  probably  only 
means  that  the  light  ought  never  quite  to  be  extinguished. 


HOLY   PLACES  77 

were  fastened,  through  which  rods  could  be  passed,  so  that  it 
might  be  carried.  The  rods  also  were  of  acacia  wood,  overlaid 
with  gold.  Upon  the  table  lay  always  twelve  thin  loaves  *  of  the 
finest  wheat  flour;  they  were  arranged  in  two  rows  of  six,  and 
Josephus  Flavius  assures  us  that  they  were  unleavened.  The 
Hebrew  text  calls  them  " loaves  of  the  Countenance";  the  Au- 
thorized Version  has  "  shrewbread."  Every  Sabbath  they  were 
taken  away  and  replaced  by  fresh  ones;  and  the  priests  ate 
the  stale  bread  within  the  sanctuary.  At  this  ceremony  the 
incense  near  the  loaves  was  burned  (perhaps  on  the  altar  of 
incense).  The  loaves  were  carried  in  on  (probably  two)  shal- 
low dishes  and  set  in  order;  the  incense  was  placed  in  little 
bowls.  Wine  also  was  brought  in  (perhaps  only  on  the  Sabbath) 
in  special  jugs,  poured  into  bowls  and  then  offered  as  libations, 
being  thrown  out  on  the  ground.  All  these  accessories  were  of 
pure  gold. 

3.  The  altar  of  incense  (Ex.  xxx.  1,  etc.;  xxxvii.  25,  etc.) 
occupied  a  position  in  the  middle  before  the  inner  curtain. 
It  was  four-cornered  and  made  of  acacia  wood,  measuring 
2  cubits  in  height  and  1  cubit  in  length  and  breadth.  It  had 
a  so-called  "  roof "  (gag) ;  i.  e.  a  raised  edge  ran  all  round 
the  flat  upper  surface,  and  a  golden  garland  was  fastened  to 
the  edge,  as  in  the  table  of  the  shewbread.  Below  the  gar- 
land were  two  golden  rings  on  each  side,  through  which  staves 
were  passed  for  carrying  the  altar.  Horns  were  fastened  to 
the  four  corners.  The  whole  was  overlaid  with  gold.  Incense 
was  offered  on  this  altar  daily,  both  morning  and  evening.  The 
ritual  was  as  follows :  2 

A  priest  took  some  glowing  charcoal  from  the  altar  of  holo- 
causts and  carried  it  in  a  golden  vessel  into  the  Tabernacle, 

1  The  number  refers  to  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  and  the  offering 
placed  before  the  Face  of  God  testified  that  they  owed  their  bread  to  the 
Lord's  goodness. 

a  Mishna,  order  Qodaschim,  tract.  9 ;  Thamid,  chap,  v.-vii.  According 
to  Isaias  vi.  6  it  appears  that  the  charcoal  was  not  laid  immediately  upon 
the  top  of  the  table,  which  would  soon  have  been  destroyed  if  this  had 
been  done,  but  it  was  placed  on  stones ;  probably  pebbles.  It  is,  however, 
possible  that  only  the  censer  rested  on  the  altar,  although  this  is  contra- 
dicted by  the  Mishna  (cf.  Heb.  ix.  4:  habens  thuribulum  aureum). 


78     HANDBOOK   FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

whilst  another  carried  the  incense.  The  first  priest  scattered 
the  charcoal  on  the  altar,  and  the  second  laid  the  incense  upon 
it.  Meanwhile  the  people  stood  in  the  court,  engaged  in  prayer, 
and  then  they  received  the  priest's  blessing.  The  incense  con- 
sisted of  four  ingredients,  which  were  called  collectively  sam- 
mim  —  sweet  perfumes.  It  had  to  be  salted,  and  had  to  be 
clean  and  holy,  i.  e.  some  salt  was  strewn  over  it,  as  over  every- 
thing offered  in  sacrifice;  it  was  not  to  contain  any  foreign  in- 
gredients, and  after  it  was  mixed,  was  to  be  used  only  in  the 
sanctuary.  It  was  forbidden,  under  penalty  of  death,  to  use 
incense  mixed  in  this  particular  way  for  any  profane  purpose. 

5.   THE  HOLY  OF  HOLIES 

The  ark  of  the  Covenant  stood  here;  it  was  a  chest  of  acacia 
wood,  covered  with  gold  both  inside  and  outside.  Its  length  was 
2!/2  cubits,  its  breadth  and  height  1%  cubits.  Round  the  mid- 
dle of  it  ran  a  garland  of  pure  gold.  At  the  four  corners  were 
golden  rings,  through  which  gilded  rods  were  passed  to  enable 
the  ark  to  be  carried;  these  rods  were  never  to  be  removed. 
Inside  the  ark  was  nothing  but  the  two  stone  tables,  on  which 
the  Ten  Commandments  were  inscribed  (Ex.  xxvi.  16;  Deut. 
x.  4,  5).  According  to  Hebrews  ix.  4,  beside  the  holy  ark 
were  kept  Aaron's  rod,  and  a  vessel  of  manna.1  In  Deuteronomy, 
xxxi.  25,  etc.,  we  read  that  the  Book  of  the  Law  also  lay  beside 
the  ark.  Moses  commanded  the  Levites:  "Take  this  book  and 
put  it  at  the  side  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant."  pH  "itfp,  etc  7r\a- 
yicov  rfj<;  KificoTov,  Vulgate,  in  later  e  arc®.  The  book  was,  as  it 
were,  the  commentary  upon  the  Decalogue. 


1  In  Heb.  ix.  4  the  reading  is  ev  $  (KI/SWTW),  which  is  generally  trans.. 
lated  "in  which  [ark]."  But  ev,  like  the  Latin  in,  also  means  near,  be- 
side. In  Ex.  xvi.  33  all  that  is  said  of  the  vessel  of  manna  is  that  it  was 
rPJT  ''JS1?  =  before  the  Lord  ;  Sept.  Ivavrlov  rdv  0eov.  In  Num.  xvii.  35 
(Vulg.  xvii.  10)  Aaron's  rod  is  commanded  to  be  carried  into  the  Taber- 
nacle for  safe  keeping.  At  the  time  of  Solomon,  according  to  III  Kings 
viii.  9  and  II  Chron.  v.  10,  there  were  only  the  two  tables  of  the  law  in 
the  ark,  but  it  is  possible  that  for  a  time  the  vessel  of  manna  and  Aaron's 
rod,  probably  cut  short,  were  kept  in  it  also. 


HOLY   PLACES  79 

Over  the  ark  was  the  Kapporeth,  i.  e.  a  cover  of  pure  gold.  It 
was  by  no  means  intended  merely  to  close  the  ark,  but  had  a  far 
higher  purpose.  This  is  implied  by  the  fact  that  it  was  of  solid 
gold,  whilst  the  ark  was  only  of  wood  overlaid  with  sheets  of 
gold,  and  also  by  the  command  that  the  Kapporeth  should  be 
as  long  and  as  broad  as  the  ark  (Ex.  xxv.  17),  —  if  it  were  only 
a  cover,  this  would  be  a  matter  of  course.  Its  true  destination 
is  suggested  by  the  Holy  of  Holies  being  called  the  house  of  the 
Kapporeth.  The  word  Kapporeth  may  indeed  mean  "cover- 
ing/' but  it  may  equally  well  be  translated  "place  of  atone- 
ment." 1  The  Kapporeth  may  be  explained  as  God's  resting 
place.  At  either  end  of  it,  and  inseparable  from  it,  was  a  cherub 
of  beaten  gold,  undoubtedly  in  human  form,  but  with  wings, 
which  were  stretched  inwards  over  the  ark.  The  space  between 
the  two  cherubim  on  the  Kapporeth  was  considered  to  be  God's 
abode  on  earth.  It  was  therefore  called  the  ScJiekina  =  dwell- 
ing. From  this  spot  God  made  answer  to  Moses  and  other 
leaders  of  the  people,  when  they  consulted  Him  on  important 
matters.2  If  the  question  is  asked  how  we  are  to  imagine  this 
presence  of  God,  whether  it  was  perceptible  to  the  senses  or 
only  perceptible  intellectually,  we  may  reply  that  the  object  of 
the  Holy  of  Holies  was  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  events 
on  Sinai,  and  that  for  this  reason  we  may  believe  the  presence 
of  God  to  have  been  perceptible  in  clouds  and  fire  (Lev.  xvi.  2 ; 
Is.  xxxvii.  15;  I  Chron.  xiii.  6).  It  is,  however,  improbable 
that  this  presence  could  always  be  perceived;  as  a  rule,  it  was 
latent,  and  became  visible  only  on  important  occasions. 

1  The  name  comes  from  Kaphar,  to  cover ;    Kapper  =  to  atone,  propi- 
tiate.    On  the  Day  of  Atonement  every  year  the   solemn  ceremony  of 
atonement  had  to  be  performed  here. 

2  Ex.  xxv.  22 :     "  Thence  will  I  give  orders,  and  will   speak  to  thee 
over  the  propitiatory,  and  from  the  midst  of  the  two  cherubims,  which 
shall  be  upon  the  ark  of  the  testimony,  all  things  which  I  will  command 
the  children  of  Israel  by  thee."    Cf.  Num.  vii.  89 ;    Deut.  v.  7 ;    I  Kings 
iii.  3. 


80     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 
II.    THE   TEMPLE 

(a)   Solomon's  Temple 
6.   INTRODUCTORY 

As  long  as  the  people  of  Israel  were  wandering  in  the 
wilderness,  the  Tabernacle  and  all  its  furniture  and  uten- 
sils were  carried  by  the  Levites  (Num.  iv.)  from  one  en- 
campment to  another.1  After  the  Israelites  had  taken  pos- 
session of  the  Promised  Land,  the  Tabernacle  was  erected  in 
various  places.  It  stood  for  a  long  time  at  Silo,  then  at  Nobe, 
and  later  still  at  Gabaon.  Meantime  the  ark  had  been  sepa- 
rated from  it,  and  during  a  war  had  passed  into  the  possession 
of  the  Philistines,  but  they  voluntarily  restored  it,  arid  it  was 
kept  for  a  time  in  a  private  house,  and  then  was  placed  by 
David  in  a  specially  erected  tent2  on  Mount  Sion,  whence  it 
was  transferred  to  the  new  Temple. 

When  the  Israelites  took  Jerusalem  from  the  Jebusites  and 
obtained  complete  possession  of  the  city,  it  was  proposed  to 
build  a  Temple  to  the  Lord  on  Mount  Moria,3  according  to  the 

1  The  Tabernacle  stood  within  the  camp.  In  Ex.  xxxiii.  7,  etc.,  we 
read  that  Moses  erected  a  "  tabernacle  of  the  covenant  "  outside  the  camp. 
Benzinger  (p.  370)  follows  Wellhausen  in  believing  this  to  have  been 
another  tent  and  not  the  Tabernacle,  which  was  required  to  be  within  it. 
The  matter  is,  however,  explicable  in  the  following  way:  On  account  of 
their  rebellious  spirit  the  Israelites  were  not  permitted  to  be  in  God's 
immediate  neighborhood,  but  later  on  (Ex.  xl.)  the  holy  Tabernacle 
was  erected  inside  the  camp,  and  the  tribe  of  Levi  was  placed  nearest  to 
it,  the  other  tribes  were  further  away,  three  on  each  side  of  it.  To  the 
east  was  the  tribe  of  Juda,  and  to  the  left  of  Juda  was  Issachar,  and  to 
the  right  Zabulon;  to  the  south  was  Ruben  with  Simeon  and  Gad;  to 
the  west  Ephraim  with  Manasses  and  Benjamin;  and  to  the  north  Dan 
with  Aser  and  Nephtali. 

a  This  was  no  longer  the  Tabernacle  made  by  Moses,  but  a  new  tent, 
probably  made  in  the  same  fashion  as  the  Mosaic  Tabernacle  which  re- 
mained in  Gabeon,  having  possibly  become  damaged  in  course  of  time. 
Solomon  had  it  solemnly  removed  and  brought  into  the  new  Temple, 
where  it  was  most  likely  kept  in  the  upper  story  above  the  Holy  of 
Holies.  Allusions  to  it  occur  in  III  Kings  iii.  4;  I  Chron.  xxi.  29; 
II  Chron.  i.  3,  13;  II  Mach.  ii.  4,  5. 

*  Moria  is  perhaps  =  ITTIDK  =  Land  of  the  Amorites. 


HOLY   PLACES  81 

same  plan  as  the  Tabernacle.1  King  David  collected  a  great 
quantity  of  materials  for  this  purpose  (I  Chron.  xxix.  2,  etc.) 
and  gave  them  and  the  designs  that  he  had  prepared  to  his  son 
Solomon,  who  faithfully  carried  out  his  father's  wishes.  He 
began  to  build  the  Temple  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  and 
completed  it  in  seven  years  (III  Kings  vi). 

The  surface  of  Mount  Moria  proved  to  be  too  small  for  the 
Temple,  so  huge  walls  were  built  up  on  the  eastern  side  and 
the  space  between  them  and  the  hill  was  filled  up  with  earth, 
and  thus  a  sufficiently  large  site  was  obtained  (Jos.  Fl.,  Ant.,  III., 
iii.  9;  Bell.  Jud.,  V,  v.  1). 

The  stone  and  the  cedar  and  cypress  wood  all  came  from 
Lebanon,  as  Solomon  had  made  an  agreement  for  this  purpose 
with  Hiram,  King  of  Tyre;  who  supplied  also  some  work- 
men, well  trained  in  their  art.  Solomon  gave  Hiram  in  re- 
turn the  products  of  his  country,  especially  grain,  oil  and  wine. 

Like  the  Tabernacle,  its  model,  the  Temple  was  divided  into 
a  house  and  a  court. 


7.  THE  HOUSE  OF  THE  TEMPLE 

(HI  Kings  vi.-viii.;   II  Chron.  iii.-v.;   Ez.  xl.-xlii.,  xlvi.) 

The  Temple  proper,  called  the  House  (habbajith),  was  built 
of  hewn  stone,  and  measured  60  cubits  in  length,  20  in  breadth, 
and  30  in  height;  —  these  are  the  inside  measurements,  not 
including  the  thickness  of  the  walls.  It  had  a  flat  roof.  The 
interior  was  divided  into  the  Holy  Place  and  the  Holy  of 
Holies.  The  former  was  40  cubits  long,  20  broad  and  30 
high;  the  latter  was  20  cubits  in  length,  breadth  and  height, 
as  the  other  10  cubits,  deducted  from  the  total  height  of  the 
building,  formed  an  upper  chamber.  The  masonry  was  covered 
on  the  inside  with  wooden  panels;  these  were  not  smooth,  but 
were  carved  with  figures  of  cherubim,  palms,  gourds  and  open- 
ing blossoms.  Over  these  very  thin  plates  of  gold  were  fastened 
with  golden  nails,  so  that  the  carved  figures  showed  through 
the  gold  with  which  they  were  covered.  It  is  probable  that 


1  In  Wisdom  ix.  8  the  Temple  is  called  fdpripa  ffKtjvfy  &ylat. 


82     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF   THE   BIBLE 

some  beams  of  wood  were  built  into  the  masonry.  The  ceiling 
and  the  floor  were  also  covered  with  wood  and  sheets  of  gold, 
but  no  figures  were  carved  upon  them. 

A  door  of  sycamore  wood  with  five  corners,1  in  the  middle 
of  the  partition  wall,  formed  the  entrance  to  the  Holy  of  Holies. 
It  was  6  cubits  in  width  (Ezech.  xli.  3)  and  was  in  two 
parts;  they,  like  the  walls,  were  covered  with  gilded  carvings, 
and  turned  on  golden  hinges.  Both  halves  of  the  door  were 
usually  open,  but  it  was  not  possible  to  see  into  the  Holy  of 
Holies,  as  a  curtain  of  the  same  kind  as  that  which  hung  for- 
merly in  the  Tabernacle  (II  Chron.  iii.  14)  shut  off  all  view. 
The  Holy  Place  was  entered  by  folding  doors  of  cypress  wood, 
but  they  folded  back  in  two  pieces  on  each  side,  and  were  orna- 
mented like  the  doors  of  the  Holy  of  Holies.  In  front  of  the 
house  of  the  Temple  was  a  porch  10  cubits  in  depth,  and  run- 
ning along  the  whole  breadth  of  the  building  (20  cubits) ; 
nothing  is  stated  as  to  its  height  in  III  Kings,  but  in  II 
Chronicles  iii.  4  we  are  told  that  it  was  120  cubits  high.  If 
this  be  correct,  the  porch  must  have  been  a  kind  of  tower,  but 
as  we  nowhere  else  find  any  suggestion  of  a  tower,  the  number 
may  perhaps  be  due  to  a  copyist's  mistake.  In  the  porch  stood 
two  thick  columns,,  one  known  as  Jakin  and  the  other  as  Boaz. 
They  were  made  by  Churam  of  Tyre,  a  skillful  artist  (II  Chron. 
ii.  13).  They  were  hollow,  cast  of  brass,  measuring  12  cubits 
in  circumference  and  18  in  height,  and  on  the  top  of  each  was 
a  capital  specially  cast,  5  cubits  high,  so  that  the  columns  and 
capitals  together  measured  23  cubits,  and  this  may  have  been 
the  height  of  the  porch.2 

1  i.  e.  a  quadrangle  running  up  into  a  point  at  the  top. 

8  Saint  Ephrem  gives  the  following  explanation  of  the  names  of  these 
columns :  "  Solomon  called  the  one  Jakin,  i.  e.  '  may  he  establish.*  This 
expresses  the  wish  that  the  building  may  stand  firm  and  be  strong.  He 
called  the  other  Boaz,  i.  e.  *  in  strength/  so  that  together  the  names 
contain  a  request  for  strength  and  permanence  "  ( Opera,  ed.  Rom.  Syr. 
Lat.,  I,  p.  460).  The  two  names  were  sometimes  taken  to  be  those  of 
people,  perhaps  of  the  two  artists  who  made  the  columns;  and  both 
designations,  ry  and  T^D,  actually  occur  elsewhere  as  proper  names.  An- 
other explanation  might  be :  "  May  he  strengthen !  with  him  is  strength." 
Benzinger  quite  arbitrarily  assumes  that  the  columns  "  were  unmis- 
takably copied  from  the  pillars  dedicated  to  Baal."  It  would  be  more 


HOLY   PLACES  83 

All  round  the  outside  of  the  Temple,  except  at  the  east  or 
front,  ran  an  annex  (jazua  =  spread  out)  containing  three 
tiers  of  chambers  for  the  things  used  in  the  Temple  worship 
and  for  storage  of  supplies.  The  beams  supporting  these  stories 
rested  on  rebatements  in  the  Temple  wall  at  each  story;  the 
beams  were  not  built  into  the  wall.  As  the  thickness  of  the 
Temple  wall  diminished  by  a  cubit  at  each  story,  the  chambers 
in  the  annex  varied  in  width.  At  the  basement  they  were 
5,  above  that  6,  and  in  the  third  tier  they  were  7  cubits  wide. 
The  height  of  each  story  was  5  cubits.  If  the  ceilings  are 
included,  we  may  assume  that  the  whole  annex  was  about  18 
cubits  in  height;  the  house  of  the  Temple  itself,  being  30 
cubits  high,  rose  considerably  above  it,  and  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  wall  on  either  side  were  windows,  i.  e.  latticed  openings 
intended  to  admit  air  rather  than  light.  The  Holy  Place  was 
lighted  with  lamps,  but  the  Holy  of  Holies  was  totally  dark. 
Doors  on  the  north  and  south  sides  (Ezech.  xli.  11)  formed 
the  entrances  to  the  lowest  story  in  the  annex,  and  a  winding 
staircase,  beginning  close  to  the  door,  led  up  to  the  apartments 
above. 

8.   THE  COUIITS  OP  THE  TEMPLE 

1.  Eound  the  house  of  the  Temple  was  the  Inner  Court  for 
priests.    It  was  enclosed  by  a  wall  of  hewn  stone,  covered  with 
cedar  wood,  and,  according  to  II  Chronicles  vii.  3,  this  court 
(and  probably  the  other  also)  was  paved  with  stones. 

2.  The  Outer  or  Great  Court  for  the  people  seems  to  have 
surrounded   the   Inner   Court   on   all   four   sides,   and   it  was 
certainly  also  enclosed  by  a  wall,  as  it  had  gateways  with  fold- 
ing doors.     Jeremias  xxxvi.  10  speaks  of  the  Inner  Court  as 
the  Upper;  it  was  therefore  on  higher  ground  than  that  of  the 
people,  and  it  is  most  likely  that  the  house  of  the  Temple, 
following  the  form  of  Mount  Moria,  occupied  the  highest  part 
of  the  hill,  and  was  raised  above  the  court  of  the  priests. 

3.  The  extent  of  these  courts  is  nowhere  stated.     As  they 
were  only  enlarged  copies  of  the  court  of  the  Tabernacle,  we 

reasonable  to  regard  them  as  copied  from  Egyptian  obelisks,  which  often 
stood  at  the  entrance  to  temples. 


84     HANDBOOK   FOR  THE   STUDY   OF   THE   BIBLE 

may  perhaps  infer  that  the  inner  court  was  200  cubits  long 
and  100  broad,  and  the  outer  court  about  double  the  size. 

9.   FURNITURE  OP  THE  TEMPLE 

1.  In  the  Holy  of  Holies  stood  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant. 
Apparently  no  new  one  was  made,  but  Moses'  ark  with  the 
Kapporeth  and  the  two  cherubim  upon  it  was  transferred  to 
the  Temple  (III  Kings  viii.  1,  etc.;    II  Chron.  v.  22,  etc.).1 
Near  the  ark,  however,  were  stationed  two  large  cherubim,  i.  e. 
figures   of   angels   in  human  form,   made   of   sycamore   wood 
overlaid  with  gold,  keeping  watch  over  it.     Each  figure  was 
10  cubits  high  and  had  wings  each  5  cubits  long.     One  wing 
was  stretched  out  backwards  and  touched  the  wall;    the  other 
was  lifted  forwards  so  as  to  meet  the  corresponding  wing  of 
the  other  cherub  above  the  Kapporeth.     The  figures  stood  up- 
right, with  their  faces  turned  towards  the  entrance  (II  Chron. 
iii.   13).     The  staves  for  carrying  the  ark,  that  were  never 
removed,    projected    so   that    their    ends    could   be    recognized 
through  the  curtain  (III  Kings  viii.  8). 

2.  In  the  Holy  Place  stood:  (a)  The  Altar  of  Incense  near 
the  curtain;    it  was  of  cedar  wood  overlaid  with  gold.      (6) 
Ten  golden  candlesticks,  bearing  seven  lamps  each;  the  candle- 
sticks were  arranged  five  along  the  north  and  south  walls  re- 
spectively,     (c)    Ten  tables   of  shewbread,  five  on  each  side. 
We  have  no  information  regarding  the  size  and  shape  of  all 
these  things;  they  no  doubt  differed  only  in  size  from  those  in 
the  Tabernacle. 

3.  In  the  Inner  Court  were:  (a)  The  brazen  altar  of  holo- 
causts, 20  cubits  in  length  and  breadth  and  10  cubits  in  height. 
In  design  it  resembled  that  of  Moses,  and  was  filled  up  inside 
with   earth   and   stones.     It   probably   had   several   projecting 
ledges,  on  the  uppermost  of  which  the  officiating  priests  stood. 
It  must  also  have  had  steps,  at  least  on  the  east  side,  as  may 
be   inferred  from   Ezechiel  xliii.   17,   "and   its   steps   turned 

1  As  at  this  time  the  ark  contained  only  the  two  tables  of  the  law 
(see  p.  78),  it  seems  probable  that  Aaron's  rod  and  the  vessel  of  manna 
and  the  Book  of  the  Law  were  kept,  with  Moses'  Tabernacle,  in  the  room 
above  the  Holy  of  Holies. 


HOLY   PLACES  85 

towards  the  east."  (&)  The  brazen  sea  or  laver  was  a  great 
round  basin  of  water,  5  cubits  high  and  10  cubits  in  diameter 
at  the  top.  It  was  cast  of  brass  of  the  thickness  of  a  man's 
hand  and  had  an  edge  curving  outwards,  beneath  which  were 
two  rows  of  gourds  as  ornamentation.  The  laver  contained 
2000  baths,  i.  e.  about  360  hectoliters  of  water.  It  rested  on 
twelve  brazen  bulls,  three  of  which  looked  towards  each  quarter 
of  the  heavens,  and  presumably  they  stood  on  a  brazen  base. 
The  water  could  probably  be  drawn  off  as  required,  by  means  of 
taps.  It  was  used  for  washing  the  hands  and  feet,  and  also 
the  flesh  of  the  victims.  We  can  scarcely  suppose  that  the  laver 
was  filled  by  hand  labor;  there  must  have  been  some  sort  of 
aqueduct.  Near  the  altar  on  the  north  and  south  sides  were 
ten  brazen  stands  with  brazen  basins  upon  them,  intended  for 
the  reception  of  the  flesh  of  the  victims.  These  stands  were 
four-cornered  boxes,  40  cubits  square  at  the  top  and  3  cubits  in 
height.  Under  each  were  four  wheels,  BO  that  they  could  be 
moved  to  and  fro  when  required,  and  convey  the  flesh  to  the 
laver  and  the  altar.  On  the  sides  of  these  stands  were  bib- 
lical figures,  —  oxen,  lions,  and  cherubim.  The  basins  on  them 
contained  each  4  bath  (about  7  hectoliters)  and  were  remov- 
able. These  stands  and  basins  were  not  used  either  in  the 
Tabernacle  nor  in  the  second  Temple.  On  the  completion  of 
the  building  the  ark  was  solemnly  carried  from  Sion  into 
the  Temple,  and  the  dedication  took  place  (III  Kings  viii.  1, 
etc.;  II  Chron.  v.  1,  etc.). 

Solomon's  Temple  stood  for  416  years  (1004-588  B.  c.)  and 
was  used  as  was  intended  during  the  whole  time  of  the  kings 
of  Juda.  In  588  it  was  plundered  by  the  Babylonians  and 
burned  with  the  city  of  Jerusalem.  The  holy  vessels  and  furni- 
ture, in  as  far  as  they  were  of  precious  materials,  were  taken  to 
Babylon. 

(6)    The  Second  Temple 
10.    ZOEOBABEL'S  TEMPLE 

After  the  Israelites  were  released  by  Cyrus,  perhaps  through 
Daniel's  influence  (I  Esdras  i.),  they  returned  home  from  the 


86     HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 

Captivity  in  536  B.  c.,  under  Zorobabel's  leadership,  and  at 
once  restored  the  altar  of  holocausts  on  its  old  site  and  re- 
newed the  daily  sacrifices.  At  the  same  time  they  began  to 
rebuild  the  Temple,  but  were  so  much  hindered  by  the  hos- 
tility of  the  Samaritans  that  building  operations  ceased  alto- 
gether for  fifteen  years  and  were  only  resumed  in  520 ;  the  work 
was  then  carried  on  with  such  zeal  that  the  Temple  was  ready 
for  consecration  in  515.  From  Esdras  vi.  3  it  appears  that 
the  new  Temple  was  larger  in  extent  than  Solomon's,1  but  far 
less  magnificent,  owing  to  the  poverty  of  the  Israelites.  More- 
over, the  chief  treasure  of  the  earlier  Temple,  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant,2  was  missing,  and  the  Holy  of  Holies  was  empty. 
Where  the  ark  should  have  stood,  a  stone  was  placed,  on  which 
the  high  priest  set  the  censer  on  the  day  of  Atonement.  In  the 
Holy  Place  was  the  altar  of  incense,  a  golden  candlestick  and 
a  table  for  the  shewbread;  in  the  court  was  an  altar  of  holo- 
2austs  built  of  stone ;  and  a  laver  stood  between  the  altar  and  the 
porch,  somewhat  to  the  south  (Middoth  iii.  6;  cf.  Ecclus.  1.  3). 
The  Court  of  the  Priests  was  surrounded  by  a  larger  court  for 
the  people.  In  consequence  of  many  costly  offerings  being 
made,  this  temple  gradually  became  more  magnificent,  and  the 
temple  tax  of  half  a  shekel  (about  30  cents),  demanded  yearly 
of  every  Jew,  even  in  foreign  countries,  supplied  funds  for  its 
decoration. 

In  the  second  century  before  Christ,  Antiochus  Epiphanea 
plundered  and  laid  waste  the  Temple  and  desecrated  it  by  the 
worship  of  false  gods.  Judas  Machabaeus,  after  driving  out  the 
Syrians,  repaired  the  buildings,  as  far  as  they  had  been  injured, 
caused  some  of  the  furniture  to  be  replaced  by  new,  and  had 
the  Temple  reconsecrated.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  feast 
of  the  Encaenia  or  Dedication  (eyKatwa,  John  x.  22,  or  <£wTa). 
At  this  time  strong  fortifications  were  added  to  the  Temple, 

1  It  is  said  to  have  been  60  cubits  high  and  60  wide. 

2  According  to  II  Mach.  ii.  4,  5,  the  prophet  Jeremias  in  588  "  com- 
manded that  the  tabernacle  and  the  ark  should  accompany  him,  till  he 
came  forth  to  the  mountain  (Nebo)  .  .  .  and  when  Jeremias  came  thither 
he  found  a  hollow  cave :   and  he  carried  in  thither  the  tabernacle,  and  the 
ark,  and  the  altar  of  incense,  and  so  stopped  the  door."    But  afterwards 
the  place  could  not  be  found  ( 1.  c.,  6,  7 ) . 


HOLY   PLACES  87 

but  nevertheless  it  was  again  taken  by  the  Romans  under 
Pompey  (64  B.C.),  and  also  by  Herod  the  Great,  who  by  the 
aid  of  Roman  troops  captured  Jerusalem  (37  B.  c.)  and  stormed 
the  Temple. 

11.    HEROD'S  TEMPLE 

Herod  the  Great  showed  his  passion  for  building  by  enlarg- 
ing and  altering  the  Temple,  although  he  did  not  actually 
rebuild  it.1 

Work  on  the  Temple  began  in  20  B.  c.,  and  in  a  year  and 
a  half  the  whole  house  of  the  Temple  had  been  transformed; 
all  the  building  being  done  by  priests  and  Levites,  after  the 
materials  had  been  prepared  and  arranged  for  them.  The 
courts  were  finished  in  ten  years,  but  work  on  the  surrounding 
buildings  was  still  going  on  during  our  Lord's  lifetime,  and 
even  later. 

In  the  form  that  it  now  assumed  the  Temple  area  measured 
a  stade,  or  500  cubits,  in  each  direction.2  It  was  laid  out  in 
terraces,  so  that  one  court  was  on  a  higher  level  than  the 
other,  and  the  Temple  itself  occupied  the  top  of  the  hill. 
It  could  therefore  be  seen  from  all  parts  of  the  city  and  also 
from  a  great  distance,  and  presented  a  magnificent  appearance. 

The  outermost  court  was  that  of  the  Gentiles.  It  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  high  wall  with  several  gates;  it  contained  several 
halls,  and  was  paved  with  colored  stones.  It  ran  round  all 
the  other  buildings,  enclosing  them  on  all  four  sides.  This 
huge  court  was  generally  filled  with  a  crowd  of  people,  and 
goods  were  sold  in  it  as  if  it  had  been  a  market  place.  It  was 
twice  cleansed  by  our  Saviour  from  this  desecration. 

Within  it,  and  on  higher  grounds,  being  reached  by  14  steps, 

1  The  reason  why  Herod  did  not  undertake  to  build  an  entirely  new 
Temple,  which  would  perhaps  have  been  less  costly,  was,  as  many  people 
think,  because  the  prophet  Aggaeus    (ii.   10)    foretold  that  the  second 
Temple   should  excel   Solomon's   in   glory.     Herod's  Temple   is  always 
spoken  of  as  the  second,  never  as  the  third. 

2  1  stade  =  fa  geographical  mile ;   so  4  stades  =  ^  mile  =  742  meters 
(nearly  half  an  English  mile).    The  Talmud  contains  an  account  of  this 
Temple  (tract  Middoth)  ;   see  also  Jos.  Flavius,  Antiq.,  XV,  11,  and  Bell. 
Jud.,  V,  5. 


88     HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

was  the  Court  of  the  People,  also  surrounded  by  a  wall,  on 
which  were  notices  in  Greek  and  Latin,  warning  the  Gentiles 
on  pain  of  death  to  go  no  farther.  On  the  east  side  this 
court  waa  entered  by  Nicanor's  Gate,  which  was  very  large 
and  magnificent,1  and  is  called  the  Beautiful  Gate  in  Acts  iii. 
2  and  10.2  Besides  this  gate  there  were  several  others  on 
the  north  and  south  sides,  leading  into  the  Court  of  the 
People,  one  on  each  side  into  that  of  the  Women  and  three 
into  that  of  the  Men,  for  this  Court  was  divided  into  a  square 
and  somewhat  lower  court  assigned  to  the  women,  and  a  higher 
court  for  the  men;  the  former  lay  nearest  to  Eleanor's 
Gate. 

On  the  same  level  as  the  Court  of  the  Men  was  that  of  the 
Levites,  separated  from  it  only  by  a  low  fence.  In  it  was  the 
great  altar  of  holocausts,  15  cubits  high,  and  at  its  lowest  pro- 
jection 40-50  cubits  broad,  and,  somewhat  to  the  south,  the 
huge  laver. 

The  house  of  the  Temple  was  situated  on  rather  higher 
ground.  It  was  built  of  immense  blocks  of  white  marble  and 
was  richly  gilded  both  inside  and  outside,  and  had  larger  dimen- 
sions than  the  earlier  temple.  It  consisted  of  a  magnificent 
porch  (100  cubits  high,  100  broad  and  20  deep) ;  the  Holy 
Place  (40  cubits  long,  20  broad  and  40  high)  and  the  Holy  of 
Holies  (20  cubits  long,  20  broad  and  40  high).  The  Holy 
of  Holies  was  empty;  the  Holy  Place  contained  the  altar  of 
incense,  one  golden  candlestick  and  one  table  for  shewbread. 
At  the  sides,  as  in  Solomon's  Temple,  there  were  three  stories 
containing  small  rooms.  The  roof  was  a  low  gable,  with  gilded 
spikes  on  the  gable. 

Such  was  the  Temple  where  our  Lord  taught  and  worked 
miracles.  Beholding  it,  He  foretold  its  speedy  destruction,  and 
that  no  stone  would  be  left  upon  another.  This  prophecy  was 
fulfilled  in  the  year  70. 


1  This  Nicanor  is  not  to  be  identified  with  the  Syrian  General  Nicanor, 
mentioned  in  the  books  of  Machabees;  it  was  an  Alexandrian  Jew  who 
had  this  gate  built.  . 

3  The  Beautiful  Gate  of  the  Acts,  the  Brazen  Gate  of  Josephus  and 
Nicanor's  Gate  of  the  Mishna  are  identical. 


HOLY   PLACES  89 

At  the  time  of  Nehemias *  the  Samaritans  built  themselves  a  temple  on 
Mount  Garizim  near  Sichem,  which  the  Jewish  king  John  Hyrcanus  de- 
stroyed in  129  B.  c.  Another  temple,  also  built  to  rival  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem,  existed  at  Leontopolis  (near  Cairo)  in  Egypt.  It  was  poorly 
equipped  and  was  pulled  down  by  the  Romans  under  Vespasian. 


12.   THE  SYNAGOGUES 

Besides  the  Temple,  but  not  as  substitutes  for  it,  for  they 
were  totally  different,  were  the  synagogues,  <rvva<ya><yal,  houses  of 
prayer  or  assembly.  We  hear  of  them  only  after  the  Captivity. 
No  sacrifices  could  be  offered  in  them,  and  therefore,  since  the 
destruction  of  the  Temple,  the  Jews  have  had  no  sacrifices.  In 
the  time  of  our  Lord,  as  at  the  present  day,  synagogues  existed 
not  only  in  Palestine  but  wherever  Jews  had  settled. 

The  requisites  for  the  establishment  of  a  synagogue  are  only  (1)  a 
cupboard  for  books  on  the  side  of  the  building  towards  Jerusalem  —  in  it 
the  parchment  rolls  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  stored;  (2)  a  lectern; 
the  synagogue  is  especially  the  place  where  instruction  is  given  in  the 
law,  and  those  learned  in  scripture  are  required  to  expound  it;  (3)  seats 
for  the  congregation,  the  sexes  being  separated,  the  front  row  of  seats 
being  reserved  for  those  learned  in  the  law;  (4)  one  or  more  candlesticks 
to  give  solemn  light  on  important  festivals.  To  keep  order  a  ruler  of  the 
synagogue  was  appointed;  he  was  assisted  by  a  college  of  elders,  and  by 
a  minister  who  had  to  attend  to  the  opening,  closing  and  cleaning  of  the 
building. 


1  Cf.  John  iv.  19.    Josephus  is  in  error  when  (Ant.,  XI,  viii.  2)  he  says 
that  this  Temple  was  built  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  (see  p.  52). 


SECOND    SECTION 

HOLY   PEKSONS 

13.   INTRODUCTORY 

SINCE  the  Israelites  quitted  Egypt,  the  firstborn  son  of 
every  family  was  dedicated  to  God  for  the  purpose  of 
attending  to  His  worship  (Num.  viii.  17;  cf.  iii.  13).  Subse- 
quently the  command  was  given  that,  instead  of  the  first- 
born sons,  all  the  males  of  a  whole  tribe  should  be  in  a  peculiar 
way  God's  property  and  look  after  His  service  (Num.  iii.  41, 
etc.).  This  was  the  tribe  of  Levi,  to  which  Moses  belonged.1 
The  reason  for  this  change  was  probably  that  the  setting  apart 
of  the  firstborn  would  have  caused  excessive  disturbances  in 
the  maintenance  of  families;  however  (Num.  iii.  47),  in  order 
that  the  original  custom  should  not  be  forgotten,  every  first- 
born son  had  to  be  redeemed  by  the  payment  of  a  sum  fixed 
by  the  priest,  but  not  exceeding  five  shekels. 

The  task  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  was  generally  to  preserve  and 
continue  the  work  of  Moses.  The  Levites  had  to  keep  the 
Law  of  Moses  free  from  all  falsification;2  they  themselves 
had  to  observe  its  precepts  most  strictly  and  instruct  the  people 

1  Fr.  v.  Hummelauer,  S.J.,  in  a  monograph  on  the  subject,  has  at- 
tempted to  prove  the  existence  of  an  Israelite  priesthood  before  the  time 
of  Moses,  that  it  was  transmitted  through  Manasses  from  Joseph  who 
had  been  admitted  to  the  priestly  caste  of  the  Egyptians,  and  then  was 
exterminated  on  Sinai,  because  it  had  lapsed  into  Egyptian  paganism 
(Ex.  xxxii.).     This  hypothesis  might  perhaps  throw  some  light  on  the 
lists  in  the  early  chapters  of  I  Chronicles;    but  in  Ex.  xxxii.  and  xxxiii. 
the  men  killed  are  nowhere  described  as  priests,  and  the  account  refers 
to  the  whole  nation  that  had  sinned  through  idolatry.     It  seems,  there- 
fore, very  unsafe  to  assume  the  existence  of  a  priesthood  before  the  time 
of  Moses. 

2  The  book  of  the  law  was  kept  in  the  Holy  of  Holies,  but  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  copies  existed  for  the  use  of  the  priests  and  Levites.     In 
Deuteronomy  xvii.   18,  19  we  read  that  the  king,  when  he  wanted  the 
book  of  the  law,  had  to  apply  to  the  priests  of  the  tribe  of  Levi.     The 
law  had  to  be  read  aloud  to  the  people  from  time  to  time. 


HOLY   PEKSOISTS  91 

in  the  observance  of  the  law.  It  was  their  business  to  watch 
over  the  manner  in  which  the  law  was  kept,  to  give  verdicts 
in  accordance  with  it,  to  hand  it  down  in  all  its  purity  to  their 
descendants,  and,  finally,  to  provide  for  the  whole  worship  of 
God  in  the  sanctuary. 

Unlike  the  other  tribes,  the  Levites  received  no  land  as  their 
property  in  Palestine.  God  alone  was  to  be  their  portion.  "  Levi 
hath  no  part  nor  possession  with  his  brethren,  because  the  Lord 
Himself  is  his  possession"  (Deut.  x.  9).  There  were,  how- 
ever, forty-eight  places  assigned  to  them  as  dwellings  in  the  midst 
of  the  other  tribes;  a  list  of  these  is  given  in  Josue  xxi.  9—40. 
Besides  these  they  had  pasture  ground  for  their  cattle,  but 
no  land  for  cultivation.  These  forty-eight  places  were  by  no 
means  the  property  of  the  Levites,  who  only  lived  there  amidst 
the  other  inhabitants. 

The  tribe  of  Levi  had,  however,  a  sufficient  income,  at  least 
if  the  law  was  faithfully  observed.  To  the  Levites  belonged 
all  tithes,  i.  e.  the  tenth  part  of  all  the  yearly  produce  of  the 
fields  and  gardens,  and  of  all  cattle  and  sheep ;  and  in  addition 
the  first  fruits,  i.  e.  the  first  produce  of  all  the  fields  and  gar- 
dens, the  firstborn  of  all  animals,  and  the  sums  paid  for  the 
redemption  of  the  firstborn  sons.  They  had  also  definite  shares 
of  all  sacrifices. 

The  duty  of  attending  to  the  actual  worship  of  God  was 
imposed  upon  one  particular  family,  viz.  the  descendants  of 
Aaron.  Aaron  himself  and  the  firstborn  of  his  family  in  each 
generation  were  the  high  priests,  all  his  other  direct  descendants 
formed  the  priesthood,  and  the  whole  tribe  was  subject  to  them. 
This  division  of  his  family  corresponds  with  that  of  the  sanc- 
tuary. The  high  priest  had  to  serve  in  the  Holy  of  Holies; 
the  priests  attended  to  all  the  ceremonies  in  the  Holy  Place, 
whilst  the  Levites  were  only  required  to  help  the  priests  in 
the  court. 

14.    THE  LEVITES 

Levi,  the  founder  of  the  tribe,  Jacob's  third  son  by  Lia, 
had  three  sons,  Gerson,  Cahath  and  Merari,  so  the  tribe  was 
divided  into  three  parts,  the  Gersonites,  the  Cahathites  and  the 


92     HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF   THE   BIBLE 

Merarites.  To  these  Levites  were  assigned  thirty-five  places  as 
their  dwellings,  and  as  means  of  livelihood  they  had,  besides  the 
produce  of  their  herds,  a  tithe  of  the  produce  of  all  fields  and 
gardens  and  of  all  cattle.  They  had,  however,  to  pay  a  tenth 
of  this  tithe  to  the  priests.  They  were  summoned  to  take  part 
at  the  sacrificial  meals. 

They  were  admitted  to  the  holy  service  by  means  of  a  special 
dedication,  called  taker  =  cleansing.  They  were  sprinkled  with 
water  of  purification,  prepared  for  the  purpose;  their  hair  was 
cut  off,  and  they  washed  their  clothes.  Then  they  came  to  the 
place  of  the  sanctuary,  where  the  people  were  assembled,  with 
two  oxen  destined  for  sacrifice.  Here  some  men  of  the  people, 
acting  in  the  name  of  the  nation,  laid  their  hands  upon  the 
Levites,  who  on  their  part  laid  their  hands  on  the  oxen,  which 
were  then  sacrificed,  one  being  a  burnt  offering  and  the  other 
a  sin  offering.  After  this  ceremony,  the  Levites  entered  on 
their  duties. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  laying  on  of  hands  on  the  part  of  the  com- 
munity signified  that  the  whole  nation  was  really  pledged  to  God's  ser- 
vice and  was  ready  to  perform  it,  but  the  Levites  were  the  representa- 
tives of  the  people  and  especially  of  the  firstborn.  The  Levites  on  their 
side  acknowledged  that  they,  as  sinners,  were  unworthy  to  serve  the  Lord, 
and  deserved  death.  As,  however,  in  that  case  there  would  be  no  minis- 
ters for  the  sanctuary,  they  allowed  the  oxen  to  die  in  their  stead,  and 
signified  that  these  creatures  were  their  representatives  by  laying  their 
hands  upon  them. 

The  first  dedication  of  the  Levites  in  the  wilderness  was 
performed  in  the  manner  just  described.  It  is  uncertain  whether 
this  held  good  always,  or  was  repeated  subsequently.  There  is 
no  record  of  a  renewed  dedication,  and  so  probably  the  first 
dedication  held  good  forever. 

We  are  not  told  anything  of  a  special  official  clothing  being 
prescribed  for  the  Levites.  It  would  seem  that  they  wore  the 
ordinary  dress,  both  in  daily  life  and  when  engaged  in  their 
sacred  duties.  In  the  performance  of  these  duties  the  Levites 
were  absolutely  subordinate  to  the  priests,  and  were  regarded 
as  their  assistants  (Num.  viii.  26).  They  were  forbidden  to 
do  sacrifice,  and  might  not  touch  the  furniture  of  the  Holy 
Place,  nor  the  altar  of  incense,  under  penalty  of  death  (Num. 


HOLY   PEKSONS  93 

xviii.  3).  During  the  wandering  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness, their  business  was  to  keep  guard  over  the  Tabernacle,  for 
which  reason  they  were  encamped  nearest  to  it,  the  Gersonites 
on  the  west,  the  Cahathites  on  the  south  and  the  Merarites  on 
the  north  (Num.  iii.  23,  29,  35),  whilst  Moses  and  Aaron  and 
the  priests  were  stationed  on  the  east  side-  near  the  entrance. 
The  Levites  had  to  erect  the  Tabernacle,  and  take  it  down 
when  the  march  was  resumed,  and  carry  the  parts  of  it,  when 
it  was  taken  to  pieces,  as  well  as  the  sacred  furniture,  which  was 
all  covered  up.  In  Palestine  they  had  to  guard  the  Tabernacle 
and  later  the  Temple,  to  open  and  to  close  it.  Every  day  six- 
teen Levites  kept  watch  at  the  gates  of  the  Temple  (I.  Chron. 
xxvi.  12),  and  in  the  second  Temple  still  more  were  employed 
because  the  spaces  were  so  great  and  the  gates  so  numerous.1 

Moreover,  the  Levites  were  required  to  clean  the  Temple  and 
everything  connected  with  it,  to  prepare  the  shrewbread  and  the 
cakes  used  at  sacrifices,  to  procure  and  look  after  all  the  acces- 
sories of  worship  (garments,  grain,  flour,  salt,  wine,  oil  and 
beasts  for  sacrifice)  and  to  supply  whatever  was  wanting.  Fur- 
ther, they  were  bound  to  provide  for  the  music  in  the  Temple 
and  to  arrange  for  the  singing.  They  assisted  the  priests  in 
slaying  and  skinning  the  victims. 

Besides  serving  in  the  Temple,  the  Levites  acted  as  judges, 
and  therefore  they  had  to  instruct  the  people  in  the  Law  and 
to  punish  transgressors  in  conformity  with  its  precepts.  Accord- 
ing to  I  Chronicles  xxiii.  4,  there  were  four  distinct  classes  of 
Levites:  (1)  ministers  of  the  priests;  (2)  overseers  and  judges; 
(3)  porters,  or  doorkeepers;  (4)  singers  and  musicians.  They 
were  bound  to  devote  themselves  to  their  official  duties  between 
the  ages  of  25  and  50.2 

Besides  the  Levites,  there  were  other  men  employed  in  menial  work  in 
the  Temple,  such  as  cutting  wood  and  carrying  water.  These  were  called 
Nethinim  =  given  ones,  bondmen  (see  Jos.  ix.  27;  I  Chron.  ix.  2; 
I  Esdr.  ii.  43  and  70). 


1  The  "  Officer  of  the  Temple,"  mentioned  in  Acts  iv.  1,  was  probably 
the  commander  of  the  guard  of  Levites. 

'  Numbers  viii.  24.  In  Numbers  iv.  2  the  age  when  a  Levite  could 
enter  upon,  his  duties  is  mentioned  as  thirty,  but  this  passage  refers  to 
the  removal  of  the  Tabernacle  during  the  wandering  in  the  wilderness. 


94     HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF   THE   BIBLE 


15.   THE  PRIESTS 

Only  the  descendants  of  Aaron,  Moses'  elder  brother,  be- 
longing to  the  Cahath  branch  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  were  chosen 
by  God  to  be  priests.  Aaron  had  four  sons,  two  of  whom, 
Abin  and  Nadam,  were  slain  for  their  carelessness  in  the 
service  of  God  (Lev.  x.  1),  so  only  the  two  remaining  sons, 
Eleasar  and  Ithamar,  could  pass  on  the  priestly  office  to  their 
•descendants.  Not  every  one  belonging  to  Aaron's  family  was 
fit  to  be  a  priest;  all  were  excluded  who  had  any  bodily  defect, 
who  were  blind,  lame,  deaf,  or  suffering  from  permanent  sores, 
etc.  (Lev.  xxi.  16,  etc.).  No  fixed  age  is  prescribed  in  the  Law, 
but  the  age  appointed  for  the  priests  no  doubt  was  the  same  as 
that  for  the  Levites.  Thirteen  of  the  Levite  towns  were  as- 
signed to  the  priests  as  their  dwellings. 

The  maintenance  of  the  priests  was  provided  for  by  ( 1 )  tithes, 
which  the  Levites  had  to  give  over  to  them  from  their  tithes; 
(2)  first  fruits  of  field  and  garden  produce;  (3)  money  paid  for 
the  redemption  of  the  firstborn,  each  of  whom  was  redeemed  for 
a  sum  to  be  fixed  by  the  priest,  but  not  exceeding  5  shekels; 
(4)  the  first  male  born  of  all  clean  beasts  had  to  be  sacrificed ; 
the  fat  was  burnt  on  the  altar,  but  the  rest  of  the  carcass  be- 
longed to  the  priests  (Num.  xviii.  18) ;  (5)  the  first  male  born 
of  unclean  beasts  either  had  to  be  killed,  or  a  clean  beast,  that 
could  be  sacrificed,  was  substituted  for  it,  and  the  fifth  of  its 
value  was  paid  in  addition;  (6)  the  skins  of  all  the  animals 
used  for  burnt  offerings,  and  definite  parts  of  those  used  in 
other  sacrifices,  belonged  to  the  priests.  Their  sources  of  in- 
come were  abundant;  they  had  no  taxes  to  pay  and  were  free 
from  military  service.  It  was  to  their  own  interest  to  preserve 
a  knowledge  and  the  observance  of  the  law  among  the  people; 
for  only  thus  had  they  an  assured  income. 

Apart  from  their  sacred  duties,  the  priests  wore  the  ordinary 
dress  of  the  people,  but  when  engaged  in  these  duties  they  wore 
special  garments  prescribed  by  law.  These  were:  (1)  a  tunic1 
with  narrow  sleeves,  reaching  from  the  neck  to  the  ankles,  and 

from  jJTD,  to  spin,  weave. 


HOLY   PEKSONS  95 

made  of  white  linen;  (2)  a  head-covering,1  made  of  byssus,  in 
the  shape  of  an  inverted  flower-calyx,  so  that  it  was  a  kind  of 
hat;  (3)  a  loin-cloth,  also  of  byssus,2  probably  a  large  cloth, 
such  as  was  worn  also  by  other  people  beneath  the  tunic  for  the 
sake  of  decency  (in  Ex.  xxviii.  42  it  is  mentioned  as  covering 
the  middle  of  the  body),  as  the  ordinary  garments  reached  only 
to  the  knees;  (4)  a  colored  girdle,  of  white,  purple,  crimson  and 
dark  blue  threads,  all  interwoven.  According  to  the  Eabbis,  this 
was  3  fingers  in  breadth  and  32  cubits  in  length,  so  that  it  could 
be  wound  several  times  round  the  body.  The  priests  wore  no 
shoes,  as  the  sacred  places  must  be  entered  barefoot. 

The  priest's  office  consisted  of  the  following  duties:  (1)  Every 
morning  and  evening  he  had  to  put  incense  on  the  altar  of 
incense,  near  the  inner  curtain  in  the  Holy  Place,  and  trim  the 
lamps  on  the  golden  candlestick.  The  old  shewbread  had  to 
be  removed  and  the  fresh  substituted  on  the  table  of  proposition 
every  Sabbath.3  (2)  In  the  Court  of  the  Temple  the  priests 
offered  very  many  sacrifices  on  the  great  altar,  where  they  kept 
the  fire  burning  day  and  night.  Every  morning  after  the  daily 
offering  of  incense,  they  blessed  the  people.  (3)  They  were 
especially  bound  to  uphold  the  Law  of  Moses,  and  therefore  it 
was  their  duty  to  instruct  the  people  in  the  law  and  to  attend 
to  the  administration  of  justice  (Deut.  xvii.  8;  xix.  17;  xxi.  5) ; 
(4)  among  their  extraordinary  occupations  were:  (a)  negotiat- 
ing about  first  fruits  and  the  firstborn;  (6)  blowing  the  silver 
trumpets  at  certain  festivals;  (c)  examining  lepers  and  pro- 
nouncing them  clean,  as  well  as  inspecting  houses  and  garments 
infected  with  leprosy;  (d)  releasing  Nazirites  from  their  vows; 
(e)  performing  the  ceremony  of  the  offering  on  behalf  of  women 
suspected  of  adultery. 

Priests  were  required  to  be  in  a  state  of  cleanness  whenever 
they  discharged  any  part  of  their  office.  As  long  as  they  were 

1  Hjjlin,  Exodus  xxviii.  40  and  elsewhere.  The  word  is  connected  with 
JT3J>  a  cup,  so  the  head-covering  was  probably  cup  shaped. 

*  *\2  IDJpD,  covering  of  cleanness;  it  does  not  mean  breeches  or 
drawers. 

3  Cf.  page  75.  Descendants  of  Aaron,  who  were  disqualified  from  the 
sacred  service  by  some  physical  defect,  might  eat  of  the  loaves  of  proposi- 
tion or  shewbread,  but  only  in  the  court,  not  entering  the  Holy  Place. 


96     HANDBOOK  FOR   THE   STUDY   OF   THE   BIBLE 

engaged  in  the  sacred  service  they  might  not  drink  wine  nor 
anything  intoxicating  (Lev.  x.  9)  and  remained  apart  from 
their  wives  (Ex.  xix.  14).  Even  when  not  employed  in  their 
priestly  duties,  they  were  forbidden  to  touch  any  corpses  (Lev. 
xxi.  1),  with  the  exception  of  those  of  their  nearest  relatives 
(Lev.  x.  6),  nor  might  they  wear  mourning,  for  sin  and  its 
consequences  are  an  abomination  to  God,  and  therefore  no  re- 
minder of  it,  such  as  mourning  for  the  dead  would  imply,  could 
be  tolerated  in  His  priests.  If,  accidentally,  a  priest  incurred 
legal  defilement,  he  could  not  discharge  any  sacred  duty,  nor 
eat  anything  consecrated,  until,  after  the  lapse  of  a  definite 
time,  he  had  been  cleansed  by  legal  ceremonies.  The  priests 
were  particularly  bound  to  lead  pure  and  blameless  lives,  as  the 
law  prescribed,  and  the  same  obligation  rested  also  upon  their 
families,  so  that  even  a  priest's  daughter,  who  had  fallen  into 
immorality,  was  required  to  be  burned  to  death  (Lev.  xxi.  9). 
It  seems,  however,  that  the  priests  often  went  astray,  for  the 
prophets  frequently  complain  of  their  setting  the  people  a  bad 
example ;  e.  g.  Jer.  v.  31 ;  vi.  13 ;  Mich.  iii.  11. 


16.   THE  HIGH  PRIEST  * 
(Exodus  xxviii.,  xxix.,  xxxix.) 

The  head  of  the  priesthood  was  the  high  priest,  who  was 
always  the  firstborn  of  Aaron's  race,  provided  that  he  possessed 
the  necessary  physical  and  mental  qualifications.  His  exalted 
position  conferred  upon  him  various  prerogatives,  so  that  he 
stood  to  the  other  priests  in  the  relation  of  a  father  to  his  sons 
("Aaron  and  his  sons");  but  it  was  his  duty  to  live  a  life 
peculiarly  pure  and  blameless. 

Dress.  Over  and  above  the  usual  priestly  attire  (tunic,  loin- 
cloth, girdle  and  head-covering)  an  official  costume  in  keeping 
with  his  exalted  dignity  was  given  to  the  high  priest  and  worn 
exclusively  by  him.  If  his  head-covering  be  included,  this  cos- 
tume also  consisted  of  four  parts,  viz.  : 


The  ordinary  name  isVrun  |rl3n,  sacerdos  magnus,  but  occasionally 
called  BNOn  jriSH,  sacerdos  princeps. 


HOLY   PEKSOtfS  97 

1.  The  Meil,1  a  garment  made  of  dark  bluish  purple,  and 
worn  over  the  priest's  tunic.     It  had  an  opening  at  the  top, 
so  that  it  could  be  passed  over  the  head.    There  were  no  sleeves. 
On  the  lower   edge  it  was  ornamented  with  artificial   pome- 
granates made  of  yarn  and  twelve  2  golden  bells  arranged  alter- 
nately.   It  probably  reached  onlytto  the  knees,  so  that  the  white 
tunic  could  be  seen  below  it. 

2.  The  Ephod,3  made  of  white  linen  skillfully  interwoven 
with  gold  and  colored  threads,  dark  blue,  dark  red  and  bright 
red.     It  consisted  of  two  squares  of  cloth,  one  covering  the 
breast  and  the  other  the  back.    These  two  squares  were  fastened 
together  and  held  in  place  by  means  of  shoulder-pieces  of  gold, 
on  each  of  which  was  an  onyx.*     On  the  two  precious  stones 
were  engraved  the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  six  on 
each.     The  lower  part  of  the  ephod  was  fastened  to  the  body 
by  means  of  a  girdle  of  the  same  materials. 

3.  The  Choschen*  or  breastplate.    This  was  a  double  square 
folded  in  half,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  pocket    (not  unlike 
the  burse  to  contain  the  corporal).     It  measured  half  a  cubit 
in  each  direction,  and  was  made  of  the  same  material  as  the 
ephod.     On  the  outer  side  were  twelve  precious  stones  set  in 


from    jpQ,  upper  ;  •  hence  "  upper  garment." 

2  This  is  the  number  given  in  the  apocryphal  Gospel  of  Saint  James. 
The  Rabbis  say  seventy-two,  but  this  is  plainly  too  large  a  number. 

3  •Yiax  =  dress.    In  every  place  where  the  word  occurs,  not  excepting 
Judges  viii.  27  and  I  Kings  xxi.  9,  it  has  this  meaning.    It  never  means, 
as  Wellhausen  suggests,  the  figure  of  a  deity,  or,  as  A.  Macklenburg  as- 
sumes, a  shrine  in  which  to  keep  pictures.    Kayser   (Theol.  d.  A.  T.,  2d 
ed.,  28  )    agrees  with  Wellhausen,  and  thinks  "  the  figure  of  God  took 
its  name  '  Ephod  '  from  the  fact  of  its  being  covered  over."     But  in 
that  case  the  high  priest  too  ought  to  have  been  called  an  Ephod.    The 
question   is   connected   with   the    assertion    that  .  the   Pentateuch   could 
not  have  existed  as  early  as  the  time  of  the  Judges  and  the  first  few 
kings,  because  representations  of  the  deity  existed,  and  the  making  of 
these  is  strictly  forbidden  in  the  Pentateuch.    But  a  violation  of  the  law 
in  the  midst  of  Gentile  surroundings  is  no  evidence  that  it  did  not  exist. 
There  is  a  proverb  to  the  effect  that  "  clothes  make  people,"  but  that 
clothes  also  make  gods  is  something  new.    Cf.  p.  39  and  also  p.  102. 

*  Heb.  D7l$,  perhaps  the  sea-green  beryl.  The  word  means  in  Arabic 
"pale."  Sept.,  a/^pa-ySos,  Vulg.,  lapis  onychinus;  Hvvl-  =  finger  nail. 

0  j$n  from  jEJn,  to  cut  off,  secure,  keep.  The  meaning  is  certainly  "  re- 
ceptacle," and  is  correctly  rendered  86j(iov  by  the  Sept. 


98     HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF   THE  BIBLE 

gold,  arranged  in  four  rows,  and  bearing  the  names  of  the 
twelve  tribes  of  Israel  engraved  upon  them.  At  each  corner  of 
the  choschen  was  a  golden  ring.  To  the  rings  at  the  two  upper 
corners  were  attached  little  gold  chains,  having  at  their  ex- 
tremities golden  clasps,  by  means  of  which  they  were  fastened 
to  the  shoulder-pieces  of  the  ephod,  close  to  the  onyx  stones. 
Blue  cords  were  passed  through  the  rings  at  the  two  lower 
corners,  and  also  through  two  other  rings  which  were  sewn 
on  to  the  edge  of  the  shoulder-pieces  of  the  ephod  below  the 
arms.  In  this  way  the  choschen  was  fastened  to  the  ephod,  both 
at  the  top  and  at  the  bottom,  and  so  was  drawn  close  to  the 
breast  and  prevented  from  slipping  out  of  place. 

Inside  the  choschen  the  Urim  and  TTiummim  were  placed. 
What  they  were,  is  not  explained,  and  the  names  do  not  help 
us ;  they  probably  mean  "  Light  and  Eight "  or  "  Clearness  and 
Truth  " ;  Septuagint,  S^Xaxri?  Kal  aXtfOeia ;  Vulgate,  doctrina  et 
veritas.  The  Jewish  authors,  Josephus  and  Philo  and  the  Eabbis, 
are  all  at  a  loss  as  to  the  interpretation.  It  appears  from 
Exodus  xxviii.  16,  30,  and  from  Leviticus  viii.  8  l  that  some 
solid  thing  is  meant,  which  could  be  put  into  the  choschen  and 
taken  out  again,  and  that  this  served  as  an  instrument  whereby 
the  high  priest  could  ascertain  God's  will  in  matters  of  im- 
portance. We  may  be  sure  that  the  Septuagint  translation 
Stj\a><ns  and  ahtfOeia  has  some  foundation.  The  words  signify 
clearing  away  of  doubt  and  recognition  of  the  truth.  The 
high  priest  was  believed  to  be  inspired  and  capable  of  deciding 
upon  the  right  course  of  action. 

4.  The  head-covering  worn  by  the  high  priest  was,  according 
to  Josephus  (Ant.f  III,  vii.  7)  and  Philo,  the  ordinary  covering 
worn  by  the  priests,  with  the  addition  of  dark  blue  ribbon,  to 
which  a  little  gold  plate  was  fastened,  having  engraved  upon 
it  the  words  "Holy  to  the  Lord"  —  qodesch  la  adonai.  The 
high  priest  did  not  always  wear  his  official  dress.  As  a  rule, 
when  he  had  only  ordinary  business  to  transact,  he  dressed  like 
the  other  priests,  but  the  ribbon  and  plate  on  his  head-covering 

1  The  rational  of  judgment  (rationale  judicii)  "shall  be  four  square 
and  doubled  .  .  .  thou  shalt  put  in  the  rational  of  judgment  doctrine 
and  truth  .  .  .  the  rational,  on  which  was  doctrine  and  truth." 


HOLY   PEESONS  99 

always  distinguished  him  from  them  (cf.  Kirchenlexicon,  3d  ed., 
VI,  168,  169). 

Duties  of  the  High  Priest.  The  following  duties  were  assigned 
exclusively  to  him:  (1)  To  perform  the  important  ceremonies 
on  the  great  Day  of  Atonement.  (2)  To  ascertain  God's  will 
by  means  of  the  ITrim  and  Thummim,  and  to  make  it  known. 
(3)  In  the  administration  of  justice  to  give  the  final  decision, 
from  which  there  was  no  appeal.  (He  seems  to  have  presided 
at  trials  of  important  cases,  and  in  the  Synedrium.)  (4)  To 
watch  over  everything  connected  with  the  worship  of  God,  and 
over  the  Levites  and  Priests.  He  could,  of  course,  discharge 
all  the  priestly  functions. 

Sanctity  of  the  High  Priest.  Standing  as  he  did  near  to  God, 
and  above  the  whole  nation  and  the  ordinary  business  of  life,  the 
high  priest  was  strictly  bound  by  the  law:  (1)  to  touch  no 
corpse,  not  even  that  of  his  father  or  mother;  (2)  at  the  death 
of  his  nearest  relatives  to  show  no  outward  token  of  mourning 
and  to  omit  none  of  his  official  duties;  (3)  to  take  a  virgin  as 
his  wife,  not  a  dishonored  woman,  or  a  widow,  or  a  divorced 
person. 

Tenure  of  Office.  The  high  priest  retained  his  dignity  until 
his  death,  if  he  were  not  disabled  by  sickness  or  old  age,  and  so 
rendered  incompetent  to  perform  his  sacred  duties.  Occasionally 
two  high  priests  are  mentioned  as  holding  office  at  the  same 
time,  but  only  one  of  these  is  to  be  regarded  as  really  acting 
as  high  priest. 

17.    CONSECRATION  OF  THE  PRIESTS 
(Ex.  xxix.,  Lev.  viii.,  and  also  Ex.  xl.) 

The  ceremony  whereby  the  Levites  were  set  apart  for  the 
service  of  the  Temple  was  called  a  purification  (Num.  viii.  6) 
(taker),  but  the  consecration  of  the  priests,  hallowing  (qad- 
desch).  The  consecration  consisted  of  several  parts,  but,  like 
the  purification  of  the  Levites,  it  falls  into  two  main  portions, 
viz.,  the  actual  consecration  and  the  accompanying  sacrifices. 

1.  The  consecration  was  effected  by  bathing  the  body,  put- 
ting on  the  priestly  garments,  and  anointing.  A  specially  pre- 


100    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

pared  oil  was  used  to  anoint  the  priests'  hands,  but  in  the  case 
of  the  high  priest  some  oil  was  poured  also  on  his  head. 

2.  For  the  sacrifices  a  young  bull,  two  rams,  unleavened 
bread  and  other  cakes  were  required.  The  newly  consecrated 
priests  laid  their  hands  on  all  the  animals  before  they  were 
killed.  The  bull  was  slain  as  a  sin  offering;  one  ram  served 
as  a  holocaust  and  the  other  as  a  thank  offering.  The  right 
ear,  right  hand  and  right  foot  of  the  consecrated  priest  were 
smeared  with  the  blood  of  the  second  ram.  Whatever  was  not 
burnt  of  the  flesh  of  the  thank  offering  and  whatever  remained 
of  the  bread  and  cakes  was  eaten  by  the  new  priests  as  a  sacri- 
ficial feast. 

The  consecration  was  not  completed  for  seven  days,  but  the 
first  day  was  the  most  important.  On  the  six  other  days  the 
anointing  was  repeated  and  other  sin  offerings  sacrificed,  and 
on  the  eighth  day  the  priests  entered  upon  their  office. 

It  was  thus  that  Aaron  and  his  sons  were  admitted  to  the 
priesthood.  Whether  the  same  ceremonies  were  observed  in  the 
case  of  subsequent  priests  and  high  priests  is  not  certain. 
According  to  the  Rabbis *  all  that  was  necessary  for  a  high  priest, 
on  entering  office,  was  to  put  on  Aaron's  robes  and  to  offer  an 
unbloody  sacrifice  (Lev.  vi.  14,  etc.).  The  same  rule  applied  to 
all  priests,  and  no  further  ceremonies  were  required.  This  is 
quite  in  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  Old  Testament.  The 
Holy  Spirit  had  not  yet  been  poured  forth,  and  the  idea  of 
individuality  had  not  yet  been  so  fully  developed  as  in  the 
New  Testament,  and  hence  the  consecration  of  each  priest  was 
unnecessary,  as  the  father  of  his  tribe  continued  to  live  in  him 
and  his  dignity  was  transmitted  by  the  act  of  procreation. 
Just  as  Abraham's  blessing  passed  on  to  the  whole  of  God's 
people,  so  the  consecration  of  Abraham's  family  affected  all 
their  descendants.  In  Hebrews  vii.  15,  16,  emphasis  is  laid 
upon  the  fact  that,  in  contrast  to  Christ's  spiritual  priesthood, 
Aaron's  priesthood  was  propagated  according  to  the  flesh,  i.  e.  by 
procreation.  Hence,  after  the  Captivity  all  were  excluded  from 

1  Exodus  xxix.  29  may  be  understood  to  mean  that  each  high  priest  was 
to  share  in  Aaron's  consecration  if  he  put  on  the  garments  of  the  founder 
of  his  line,  and  if  his  hands  were  anointed. 


HOLY   PEKSONS  101 

the  priesthood  who  could  not  prove  with  certainty  that  they  were 
descended  from  Aaron  (Esdras  ii.  62;  Nehemias  vii.  64).  Cf. 
page  91,  on  the  purification  of  the  Levites.  As  in  time  the 
number  of  priests  increased  very  greatly,  David  arranged  for 
their  division  into  twenty-four  classes  or  courses,  each  under 
a  chief  (I  Chron.  xxiv.  3,  etc.),  and  each  course  in  turn  had 
to  officiate  in  the  sanctuary  for  a  week,  from  Sabbath  to  Sab- 
bath. The  various  offices  connected  with  the  Temple  worship 
were  assigned  by  lot;  and  according  to  the  Talmud  there  was 
a  special  superintendent  of  the  lots  (cf.  Luke  i.  9). 

The  Mosaic  Origin  of  the  Priesthood  and  of  Levites.  —  Wellhausen 
(Proleg.,  121,  etc.)  denies  that  the  distinction  between  priests  and  Levites 
dates  from  the  time  of  Moses  and  claims  that  Ezechiel  did  not  recognize 
it  as  the  sharp  distinction  which  the  Priests'  Code  ascribes  to  it ;  and  so, 
argues  Wellhausen,  the  Priests'  Code  did  not  exist  at  the  time  of  Ezechiel. 
In  his  vision  of  the  restoration  of  Israel  and  particularly  of  the  Temple 
after  the  Captivity,  Ezechiel  says  (xliv.)  that  only  the  descendants  of 
Sadok,  who  had  acted  as  priests  in  Jerusalem  from  the  time  of  David  on- 
ward, might  officiate  in  the  new  Temple,  but  those  priests  of  the  tribe  of 
Levi  who,  here  and  there  in  the  country,  had  gone  astray  and  served  false 
gods,  should  thenceforth  (in  the  persons  of  their  descendants)  be  admitted 
to  only  the  lower  duties  in  the  Temple  worship,  as  a  punishment  for  their 
guilt.  They  had  forfeited  their  priesthood  by  misusing  it  in  order  to  wor- 
ship on  high  places.  Wellhausen  thinks  that  Ezechiel  is  the  first  to  dis- 
tinguish priests  and  Levites,  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  distinction 
between  Israelites  and  Gentiles  on  the  one  hand,  and  that  between  the 
mass  of  the  people  and  those  engaged  in  the  worship  of  God  on  the  other, 
should  not  be  referred  to  any  very  remote  period.  "  In  the  chief  part  of 
the  Book  of  Judges  there  is  no  mention  of  any  one  officially  engaged  in  the 
cultus;  we  hear  twice  of  sacrifice  being  offered,  but  it  is  by  Gideon  and 
Manoah.  A  priest  was  not  thought  necessary.  ...  If  the  priests  and 
Levites  living  in  the  midst  of  the  Children  of  Israel  had  been  so  arranged 
from  the  time  of  Moses,  they  could  not  have  vanished  completely  in  the 
time  of  the  Judges."  In  I  Kings  vi.  15  Levites  are  indeed  mentioned  aa 
serving  in  connection  with  the  ark  of  the  Covenant,  but  this  is  regarded 
as  a  later  gloss. 

In  answer  to  all  this  we  may  say  that  before  the  building  of  the  Temple 
the  divine  worship  was  not  organized  with  the  regularity  of  later  times. 
The  constant  wars  which  kept  the  people  in  an  unsettled  state,  the  novelty 
of  all  their  circumstances  and  the  prevalence  everywhere  of  heathen  cus- 
toms, which  could  not  but  affect  the  Israelites,  did  not  admit  of  an  orderly 
observance  of  religious  rites.  It  was  a  long  time,  for  instance,  before 
Christianity  prevailed  in  Germany  and  displaced  the  heathen  customs, 
traces  of  which  still  exist  in  some  places.  It  is,  however,  clear  from  the 
story  of  Heli  and  Samuel  that  the  central  sanctuary,  first  at  Silo  and 
then  at  Nobe,  was  generally  respected,  and  that  a  large  number  of  men 


102    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

were  already  engaged  in  the  religious  worship.  Saul  had  eighty-five 
priests  from  Nobe  killed  at  one  time  (I  Kings  xxii.  18).  Even  if  indi- 
viduals here  and  there,  following  the  custom  of  olden  times,  offered 
sacrifice  elsewhere  in  their  capacity  as  heads  of  families  or  even  as 
private  persons,  this  might  be  still  tolerated  as  an  ancient  custom.  Strict 
centralization  was  possible,  however,  and  its  necessity  appeared  more 
and  more  after  the  Temple  was  built,  for  the  isolated  sanctuaries  in 
the  country  had  become  for  the  most  part  the  homes  of  superstition,  im- 
morality and  idolatry. 

In  support  of  his  theory,  Wellhausen  relies:  (1)  upon  the  Book  of 
Judges,  in  the  greater  part  of  which  (iii.-xvi.)  there  is  no  mention  of  a 
class  of  persons  engaged  in  religious  observances;  (2)  upon  the  same 
book,  which  in  an  appendix  (xvii.,  xviii.)  speaks  of  a  priestly  function 
in  a  way  that  does  not  agree  with  the  Pentateuch;  (3)  upon  II  Kings 
viii.  18,  where  we  read  that  David's  sons  were  priests,  which,  according  to 
the  Pentateuch,  they  could  not  have  been  permitted  to  be. 

In  reply  it  may  be  stated  ( 1 )  that  other  passages  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, belonging  to  a  later  period,  also  contain  no  mention  of  a  priestly 
class,  because  there  is  no  reason  why  such  mention  should  be  made  in 
them.  For  instance,  in  the  first  and  second  sections  of  the  Psalms  the 
words  priest  and  Levite  do  not  once  occur ;  and  yet,  according  to  modern 
critics,  the  whole  psalter  belongs  to  the  period  after  the  Captivity,  and 
Wellhausen  even  regards  it  as  doubtful  whether  any  psalms  of  an  earlier 
date  exist.  Is  it  possible  to  argue  from  the  silence  of  these  two  sections 
that  there  was  no  legally  established  priesthood  even  after  the  Captiv- 
ity? No!  Therefore  it  is  not  permissible  to  prove  from  the  above-men- 
tioned chapters  in  the  Book  of  Judges  that  in  the  time  of  the  Judges 
the  official  priesthood  organized  by  Moses  did  not  exist. 

(2)  That  even  in  that  remote  period  the  tribe  of  Levi  was  officially 
connected  with  public  worship  appears  as  a  recognized  fact  in  Judges 
xvii.  and  xviii.  —  the  very  chapters  upon  which  Wellhausen  relies. 
Michas,  an  Ephraimite,  caused  a  costly  metal  statue  of  Yahweh  to  be 
made,  and  appointed  one  of  his  own  sons  to  be  priest  of  this  statue  and 
of  the  little  temple  erected  to  contain  it.  That  this  was  an  abuse,  aris- 
ing probably  out  of  superstition,  is  suggested  by  the  words,  "  In  those 
days  there  was  no  king  in  Israel,  but  every  one  did  that  which  seemed 
right  to  himself."  Then  a  Levite  named  Jonathan  came  into  the  dis- 
trict from  Bethlehem.1  Michas  persuaded  him  to  remain  with  him  as 


1  As  Bethlehem  was  not  a  Levite  town,  it  has  been  suggested,  as  this 
place  is  mentioned  as  Jonathan's  home,  that  he  belonged  to  the  tribe  of 
Juda,  and  that,  in  the  time  of  the  Judges,  the  word  Levite  did  not  mean 
a  man  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  but  one  of  the  wandering  people, 
who,  being  descended  from  Egyptian  priests,  practiced  all  manner  of  arts 
(fortune-telling,  etc.),  like  our  modern  gypsies.  Their  ancestors  are 
supposed  to  have  left  Egypt  with  Moses,  and  in  course  of  time  they 
succeeded  in  securing  plenty  of  money  on  the  ground  of  their  priestly 
powers.  The  text  of  the  Book  of  Judges,  however,  contains  a  clear 
sattement  that  Jonathan  was  descended  from  Moses,  and  consequently 
from  Levi,  Jacob's  son.  "Jonathan,  the  son  of  Gerson,  the  son  of 
Moses"  (xviii.  30).  His  residence  in  Bethlehem  had  nothing  to  do  with 


HOLY   PEESONS  103 

priest,  in  place  of  his  son,  in  return  for  payment,  food  and  clothing,  and 
the  Levite  consented.  Michas  felt  quite  happy  at  having  "  a  priest  of 
the  race  of  the  Levites  "  with  him.  Afterwards  men  belonging  to  the 
tribe  of  Dan,  in  the  course  of  their  wanderings  to  their  new  settlement, 
came  to  Michas,  and  violently  deprived  him  of  his  statue  and  all  con- 
nected with  it,  including  the  Levite,  and  erected  a  sanctuary  for  them- 
selves in  their  new  home  farther  north.  Thenceforth  the  Levite  was 
their  priest.  That  the  tribe  of  Levi  "was  completely  destroyed  at  the 
first  attempt  to  conquer  Chanaan "  ( Volck,  p.  44 )  cannot  be  inferred 
from  Genesis  xlix.  5-7,  as  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  mentioned  in  the  same 
verses,  continued  to  exist. 

(3)  While  the  sons  of  David  are  called  Kohanim  in  II  Kings  viii., 
this  word  cannot  here  bear  its  ordinary  meaning  of  "  priest."  In 
verses  16-18  the  men  are  named  who  held  posts  of  honor  at  court;  Joab 
was  commander  of  the  army,  Josaphat  was  recorder,  Sadok  and  Achime- 
lech  were  priests,  Saraias  was  the  scribe,  Banaias  was  set  over  the  body- 
guard and  "  David's  sons  were  Kohanim."  As  the  priests  are  mentioned 
in  verse  17,  the  word  Kohanim  must  receive  another  interpretation.  The 
Septuagint  renders  it  avXdpxcu.  Probably  the  king's  sons  held  some  high 
offices  about  the  court,  that  we  no  longer  know.  The  word  is  generally 
translated  "  princes."  By  designating  the  king's  sons  Kohanim,  as  if 
they  were  priests,  the  writer  suggests  that  they  lived  with  the  king  as 
his  confidants  in  the  same  way  as  the  priests  dwelt  with  God  in  the 
sanctuary.  The  king  represents  God's  majesty.  (Cf.  I  Chron.  xviii.  17, 
where  David's  sons  are  called  the  first  at  the  king's  hand. 


APPENDIX 

THE  SYNEDBIUM  AND  THE  JEWISH  SECTS 
The  Synedrium 

or  Sanhedrin,  the  Council  of  the  Jews,  was,  during  the  closing  period  of 
the  Jews'  existence  as  a  State,  the  chief  religious  and  political  body,  hav- 
ing authority  to  decide  on  the  most  important  matters  in  the  national 
life,  and  claiming  also  the  right  to  pronounce  sentences  of  life  and  death. 
Our  Saviour  and  the  Apostles,  Saint  Stephen  also  and  Saint  Paul,  were 
all  brought  before  this  tribunal,  which  was  formed  on  the  lines  laid 
down  by  Moses  (Ex.  xviii.  25;  Num.  xi.  16)  of  seventy  of  the  chief 
priests,  elders  and  doctors  of  the  law,  and  met  under  the  presidency  of 
the  high  priest,  generally  in  one  of  the  side  buildings  of  the  Temple,  but 
occasionally  in  the  high  priest's  house. 

Jewish  Sects 

1.    Mention  is  often  made  in  the  New  Testament  of  Scribes,  doctors 
and  teachers  of  the  law    (ypawareis,  vofiiKoL,  vojj.o8i5d<rKa\oi)  ;    these  per- 


his  descent;  possibly  his  mother  came  thence,  as  in  xvii.  7  we  read  that 
he  was  "  of  Bethlehem  Juda  (rn^TT  nnSBPQQ)  of  the  kindred  thereof,  and 
he  was  a  Levite  and  dwelt  there  ' 


104    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

sons  were  not  connected  with  the  Temple  worship  in  these  capacities, 
but  belonged  for  the  most  part  to  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees,  the  upholders 
of  the  claims  and  doctrines  of  orthodox  Judaism.  Their  name  comes 
from  parasch,  to  separate,  and  means  "  those  set  apart,"  those  who  by 
their  piety  and  wisdom  are  conspicuous  above  the  mass  of  the  people. 
Their  reputation  was  so  great  that  even  the  priests,  who  formed  the 
hereditary  aristocracy  of  the  nation,  found  it  expedient  to  join  this  sect, 
in  order  to  retain  their  prestige,  and  the  Council  or  Synedrium  consisted 
chiefly  of  Pharisees.  They  seem  to  have  originated  before  the  time  of  the 
Machabees,  as  they  were  already  strong  and  influential  under  Jonathan 
Machabseus  in  144  B.  c.  (Jos.,  Ant.,  XIII,  v.  9).  Besides  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures they  reverenced  a  particular  tradition,  which  they  ascribed  to 
Moses,  as  the  source  of  the  Law;  this  developed  later  into  the  Talmud. 
The  sect  was  at  first  worthy  of  high  esteem,  but  it  gradually  degenerated, 
and  at  the  time  of  our  Lord  the  Pharisees  appear  as  sanctimonious  per- 
sons, full  of  uncharitableness,  pride  and  avarice.  There  were,  however, 
noble  exceptions,  e.g.  Nicodemus  (John  iii.)  and  Gamaliel  (Acts  v.  34). 
Inasmuch  as  they  were  the  expounders  and  teachers  of  the  Law,  they  re- 
ceived the  honorable  title  of  Rabbi  =  master  ( ^\  from  2~\ ,  much, 
great  =  magister) . 

At  the  time  of  Christ  there  were  two  famous  teachers  with  a  numer- 
ous following,  —  Shammai  and  Hillel.  The  former  represented  the  strict- 
est school  of  thought,  especially  with  regard  to  divorce;  the  latter  ad- 
hered to  milder  doctrines  and  practice. 

2.  In  direct  contrast  to  the  stern  Judaism  of  the  Pharisees  were  the 
easy-going  views  of  the  party  of  the  Sadducees,  which  had  penetrated 
into  Palestine  from  the  west  after  the  Graeco-Persian  wars.    It  is  impos- 
sible not  to  recognize  a  connection  between  the  Sadducees  and  the  Epi- 
curean philosophy.     In  origin  and  name  this  sect  is  generally  derived 
from  a  certain  Sadok,  a  disciple  of  Antigonus  of  Socho   (died  264  B.C.). 
According  to  another  account  they  called  themselves  Zaddikim  =  honest 
people.     It  is,  however,  most  probable  that  they  declared  themselves  to 
be  Sadokides,  i.  e.  members  of  the  high  priest's  party,  for,  from  the  time 
of  David,  the  high  priesthood  remained  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Sadok. 
They  accepted  Holy   Scripture,  at  least  the  Pentateuch,  but  no  tradi- 
tions.   They  believed  in  God,  but  not  in  angels;    declared  the  soul  to  be 
material   and  mortal,   and   consequently   rejected   the   doctrines  of  the 
resurrection  of  the  body  and  of  future  rewards  or  punishments;    more- 
over they  denied  the  action  of  Divine  Providence.     This  sect  consisted 
chiefly  of  rich  and  powerful  persons,  for  which  reason  it  became  influen- 
tial in  the  Synedrium,  and  secured  the  high  priesthood    (Acts  xxiii.  6, 
etc.),  but  it  never  won  much  esteem  among  the  nation  as  a  whole   (Jos. 
FL,  Bell.  Jud.y  II,  viii.  14;    Ant.,  XVIII,  i.  2). 

3.  The  Essence  are  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  but  Josephus  and 
Philo  describe  them  as  ascetics,  who  apparently  had  added  to  Judaism 
the   tenets   of   heathen   and   especially   of  the   Pythagorean   philosophy. 
Various  explanations  are  given  of  their  name;    it  may  be  derived  from 
an  Aramaic  word  chase,  pious,  pi.  chasen,  chasajja.    They  formed  a  kind 
of  religious  order  governed  by  definite  rules  and  divided  into  four  classes. 
They  conceived  of  the  Deity  as  the  purest  light,  and  the  sun  they  re- 
garded as  His  symbol.    They  honored  Moses  and  his  law ;    believed  in  the 


HOLY    PERSONS  105 

immortality  of  the  soul;  observed  the  Sabbath  very  strictly  but  re- 
jected the  Jewish  sacrificial  worship.  Their  morality  was  based  on  love 
of  God  and  man,  and  on  self-control.  For  love  of  God  they  sought  to 
lead  pure  lives  and  always  to  speak  the  truth;  their  love  of  man  showed 
itself  in  good  will,  charitable  deeds  and  community  of  property.  They 
exercised  self-control  by  despising  wealth,  honors  and  pleasures,  and 
many  refrained  from  marriage.  They  lived  partly  in  settlements  of  their 
own  near  the  Dead  Sea,  partly  in  the  midst  of  other  Jews  in  towns  and 
villages,  supporting  themselves  by  the  work  of  their  hands  or  by  agri- 
culture. Their  number  did  not  exceed  four  thousand. 

4.  A  fourth,  and  probably  not  numerous  sect,  was  that  of  the  Hero- 
dians,  who  are  mentioned  a  few  times  in  the  New  Testament.  They  were 
adherents  of  the  Herodian  royal  family,  and  were  therefore  inclined  to 
favor  the  Romans,  and  were  hostile  to  the  Jewish  religion. 


THIRD    SECTION 

SACRED   RITUAL 

I.    SACRIFICES 
18.   WHAT  COULD  BE  OFFEKED 

AS  a  rule  it  was  required  of  an  Israelite  coming  to  the 
Temple,  that  he  should  not  appear  empty  handed.  The 
gifts  which  might  be  offered  up  in  honor  of  God  were  partly 
animal,  partly  vegetable,  and  also  salt.  Only  clean,  domestic 
animals  could  be  sacrificed,  viz.  (1)  oxen  (bullocks,  cows  and 
calves);  (2)  rams,  sheep,  lambs,  goats  and  kids;  (3)  doves 
(turtledoves  and  young  pigeons  =  bene  jona).  The  latter  were 
sometimes  offered  by  the  poor,  who  could  not  afford  to  give 
more  costly  creatures,  but  sometimes  they  served  for  the  less 
important  sacrifices.1  The  animals  for  sacrifice  had  to  be  with- 
out blemish;  they  might  not  be  mutilated  or  deformed,  blind, 
or  affected  with  sores  or  wounds;  they  must  not  walk  crooked, 
etc.  (Lev.  xxii.  19-25).  Moreover,  they  must  have  reached  a 
certain  age;  the  young  must  be  at  least  eight  days  old;  sheep 
and  goats  were  generally  sacrificed  when  a  year  old,  and  bullocks 
when  three  years  old. 

The  following  vegetable  products  might  be  offered :  (a)  grain, 
including  ears  of  grain,  flour,  bread  and  cakes  variously  prepared ; 
(&)  garden  produce,  fruit,  especially  grapes,  wine  and  olive 
oil;  (c)  incense.  Salt  was  used  at  all  sacrifices  both  bloody 
and  unbloody.  The  incense  and  even  the  blood  were  salted. 

1  Leviticus  xii.  6:  A  woman  after  childbirth  had  to  offer  a  lamb  and 
a  pigeon,  or,  in  case  of  poverty,  two  pigeons.  Leviticus  xv.  14  and  29: 
Certain  defilements  required  to  be  cleansed  by  the  sacrifice  of  pigeons. 
Numbers  vi.  10:  A  Nazarite  who  had  broken  his  vow  had  to  sacrifice 
two  pigeons. 


SACRED   RITUAL  107 

The  chief  sacrifices  always  consisted  of  animals.  A  man  doing  sacri- 
fice may  give  what  he  possesses.  The  Israelites  were  originally  a  pas- 
toral people.  (Gen.  xlvi.  34:  "We  are  shepherds  .  .  .  both  we  and  our 
fathers.")  It  was  only  later  that  they  practiced  agriculture  also,  and 
hence  the  sacrifice  of  animals  was  always  the  most  important,  especially 
as  the  sense  of  guilt  finds  its  serious  expression  in  shedding  the  blood  of 
the  sacrifice.  This  is  implied  also  by  God's  satisfaction  at  Abel's  sacri- 
fice, whose  faith  is  extolled  in  Heb.  xi.  4.  Abel  in  spirit  beheld  the 
future  Redeemer,  but  Cain  did  not  recognize  Him. 

Honey  and  leaven  were  expressly  forbidden.1 


19.   RITUAL  OF  SACRIFICE 

Animal  sacrifices  were  performed  in  the  following  way:  The 
animal  was  brought  into  the  court  of  the  Tabernacle  or  Temple, 
for  it  was  forbidden,  under  pain  of  death,  to  offer  sacrifices  else- 
where. It  was  tied  up  to  a  ring  fastened  in  the  earth,  and  the 
person  offering  it  laid  his  hands  on  its  head.  (This  was  omitted 
in  the  case  of  the  Paschal  lamb,  and  of  pigeons.)  The  meaning 
of  this  ceremony  was  that  the  sin  of  the  offerer  passed  over  to 
the  victim,  who  was  to  die  in  place  of  the  sinful  man.2  Accord- 
ing to  the  Rabbis  (Otho,  Lex  Rabbin.),  a  confession  of  sin  accom- 
panied the  laying  on  of  hands,  the  words  being  as  follows: 

"  I  have  sinned,  have  acted  amiss,  have  been  rebellious,  especially  have 
I  committed8  .  .  .  But  I  return  to  Thee  full  of  repentance.  May  this 
[i.  e.  the  offering  of  the  victim]  be  my  expiation!  "  Cf.  Numbers  v.  6,  7. 


1  Leviticus  ii.  11:    "Neither  shall  any  leaven  or  honey  be  burnt  in  the 
sacrifice  to  the  Lord."    The  reason  is  probably  that  honey  by  its  sweet- 
ness symbolized  sinful  sensual  enjoyments,  and  leaven  as  the  means  of 
fermentation  typified  that  inherited  element  in  human  nature  which  al- 
ways keeps  it  in  a  state  of  wild  passion,  viz.   sensual  concupiscence, 
which  originated  in  sin  and  leads  to  sin.    Sin,  and  all  connected  with  it, 
had  to  be  excluded  from  the  altar  of  sacrifice,  which  was  undefiled,  a 
place  dedicated  to  God,  raised  above  the  sin-stained  earth. 

2  Leviticus  i.  4:  "He  shall  put  his  hand  upon  the  head  of  the  victim, 
and  it  shall  be  acceptable  and  help  to  its  expiation." 

3  The  confession  of  sins  answers  a  need  of  human  nature  and  has  at 
all  times  appeared  as  accompanying  true  penance.    Adam  had  to  acknowl- 
edge his  guilt  and  did  so,  but  Cain  refused   (Gen.  iii.  11,  iv.  9).     David 
says  of  himself,   "  Because  I  was  silent  -my  pain  consumed  me."     He 
rightly  perceived  that  sacrifice  alone  was  not  enough.    Si  voluisses  sacri- 
ficium,  dedissem  utique    (Ps.  1.   18).     Happily   for  him   God  sent  the 
prophet  Nathan,  before  whom  he  acknowledged  his  guilt  (II  Kings  xii. 


108    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Thus  laden  with  the  sin  of  the  offerer,  the  victim  was  slain 
on  the  north  side  of  the  altar,  generally  by  the  person  who 
offered  it,  but  it  might  be  done  by  the  priest  (II  Chron.  xxix. 
24).  The  priest  caught  the  blood  in  a  vessel,  and,  according 
to  the  kind  of  sacrifice  intended,  he  sprinkled  some  of  it  either 
on  the  side  of  the  altar,  or  on  the  horns,  or  on  the  altar  of 
incense,  or  even  towards  the  Kapporeth  in  the  Holy  of  Holies. 
The  rest  of  the  blood  was  poured  out  on  the  ground  near  the 
altar  of  holocausts  (Lev.  iv.  7).  Then  the  victim  was  skinned 
and  cut  to  pieces.  Either  all  the  flesh  was  laid  upon  the  altar 
and  burnt,  or  only  some  of  the  fat  was  consumed  by  the  altar 
fire,  and  the  rest  of  the  flesh  was  cooked  and  eaten  by  the 
priests,  or  used  by  the  offerer  of  the  sacrifice  for  a  sacrificial 
feast,  or  burnt  outside  the  city  or  encampment. 

When  pigeons  were  offered,  the  priest  killed  them  by  breaking 
their  necks,  not  by  cutting  off  the  heads  (Lev.  i.  15;  v.  8).1 
Apparently  a  cut  was  then  made  in  one  place,  and  the  blood 
was  allowed  to  drip  on  the  side  of  the  altar.  The  wings  were 
slightly  torn  and  then  the  birds  were  thrown  into  the  fire  on 
the  altar.  Vegetable  offerings  were  seldom  made  alone,  but 
generally  in  conjunction  with  bloody  sacrifices.  The  procedure 
was  as  follows:  (1)  If  the  sacrifice  belonged  to  the  class  of 
burnt  offerings,  the  priest  took  only  a  small  portion  of  the  flour, 
cakes,  etc.,  and  burnt  it  with  incense  on  the  altar.  The  rest 
belonged  to  the  priest,  but  had  to  be  eaten  unleavened  in  the 
Court,  after  being  prepared  for  food.  If  the  offerer  were  him- 
self a  priest,  the  whole  was  burnt.  If  the  sacrifice  was  a  peace 
offering,  one  cake  out  of  all  that  were  brought  was  taken  for 
the  Lord  and  given  to  the  priest;  the  rest  was  used  by  the 
offerer  for  a  sacrificial  feast. 

13).  The  Baptism  of  John  was  connected  with  confession  of  sins  (Matt. 
iii.  6).  It  cannot,  however,  be  maintained  that  under  the  old  dispensa- 
tion a  special  confession  of  sins  was  a  conditio  sine  qua  non  of  forgive- 
ness. Special  confession  was  ordained  first  by  Christ  (John  xx.  23). 

1  The  Hebrew  pyQ  means  to  break  off;  Septuagint,  diroKvlgeiv ;  Vul- 
gate, retorquere  ad  collum,  ad  pennulas.  It  seems  that  the  neck  was  not 
wrung,  but  violently  bent  backwards,  so  that  the  throat  was  separated 
inside  from  the  body,  remaining  united  to  it  only  by  the  skin. 


SACRED   EITUAL  109 


20.   VARIETIES  OP  SACRIFICES 

According  to  the  objects  brought  as  offerings,  sacrifices  were 
divided  into  (1)  bloody,  or  slain  offerings,  and  (2)  unbloody, 
or  meat  and  drink  offerings.  According  to  the  reasons  for 
offering  the  sacrifices  they  were  distinguished  as  (1)  holocausts, 
or  burnt  offerings;  (2)  peace  offerings;  (3)  sin  offerings;  (4) 
trespass  offerings. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  offerings  have  a  symbolic  meaning.  In 
the  New  Testament  we  have  but  one  sacrifice,  which,  however,  contains 
all  the  various  sacrifices  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  they  were  merely 
foreshadowings  of  it.  The  holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is  a  holocaust,  — 
the  whole  victim,  the  Lamb,  who  hung  in  burning  agony  on  the  Cross,  is 
offered  up;  it  is  a  peace  offering — a  sacrificial  feast  takes  place,  at 
which  Christians  appear  as  God's  guests;  it  is  a  sin  offering,  for  our 
sins  constrain  us  to  offer  this  holy  sacrifice  in  order  to  appease  the  wrath 
of  God;  it  is  a  trespass  offering, — making  reparation  for  the  wrong 
done  to  God,  and  obtaining  reconciliation  with  one's  neighbor,  hence  the 
kiss  of  peace.  It  is  at  the  same  time  a  bloody  and  an  unbloody  sacrifice. 


(a)   Bloody  Sacrifices 

21.   HOLOCAUSTS,  OK  BURNT  OFFERINGS 
(Leviticus  i.  3-17,  vi.  8-13) 

1.  Name.     The  Hebrew  name  for  this  kind  of  sacrifice  is 
old  =  that  which  rises,  i.  e.  that  which  rises  to  heaven  from  the 
altar  as  a  fragrance  pleasing  to  God.    Still  more  expressive  are 
the  Greek  names,  oXoKavrcofjia  or  oXo/catmoo-t?,  selected  by  the 
Septuagint    with    reference    to    the    Hebrew    word    kalil,1    or 
oXd/cavarrov,    which   Philo   uses.      All   these   signify   that   the 
whole  victim  was  burnt.     The  Vulgate  has  adopted  the  word 
holocaustum  from  the  Greek.    The  words  "  burnt  offering  "  are 
less  expressive. 

2.  Ritual.    Only  male  animals  could  be  used  for  these  sacri- 
fices;   in  fact,  in  all  animal  sacrifices  males  are  preferred,  as 
being  larger  and  stronger.    Every  kind  of  animal  that  could  be 
sacrificed  at  all  might  be  offered.     The  victims  were  brought 

1  Deuteronomy  xiii.  17,  xxxiii.  10;   I  Kings  vii.  9;    Ps.  li.  22. 


110    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

in,  hands  were  laid  upon  them,  and  they  were  slain,  as  in  all 
sacrifices.  The  blood  was  sprinkled  round  about  the  altar.  The 
skins  belonged  to  the  priest,  who  did  not  as  a  rule  take  them  off 
himself,  this  being  done  by  the  offerer.  The  animal  was  cut  to 
pieces,  its  entrails  taken  out  and  purified,  and  then  the  whole 
was  burnt  together  on  the  altar  of  holocausts  in  the  Court. 
Only  the  sinew  of  the  thigh  (the  so-called  sciatic  nerve)  was 
removed.  The  reason  for  this  is  stated  in  Genesis  xxxii.  32, 
"  therefore  the  children  of  Israel  unto  this  day  eat  not  the 
sinew  that  shrank  in  Jacob's  thigh,  because  He  [God]  touched 
the  sinew  of  his  thigh  and  it  shrank." 

Just  as  men  are  not  accustomed  to  eat  flesh  without  bread 
and  drink,  so  with  every  holocaust  was  connected  an  unbloody 
addition,  a  meat  and  drink  offering.  The  materials  and  quan- 
tities of  these  offerings  varied  in  accordance  with  the  animal 
sacrificed.  There  was  no  unbloody  sacrifice  connected  with  an 
offering  of  doves. 

The  holocaust  was  the  most  usual  form  of  sacrifice.  Twice  daily, 
morning  and  evening,  a  lamb  was  sacrificed  in  accordance  with  the  law; 
and  in  addition  similar  offerings  were  prescribed  on  various  occasions, 
such  as  the  purification  of  women  after  childbirth,  of  those  who  had  re- 
covered from  leprosy,  etc.  There  were  also  voluntary  holocausts  (Ps.  1. 
20),  and  these  might  be  offered  even  by  Gentiles.  According  to  Philo,' 
the  Emperor  Augustus  had  a  bull  and  two  lambs  offered  for  himself 
daily  as  holocausts  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem. 


22.   PEACE  OFFERINGS 
(Lev.  iii.  1-17,  vii.  11-21,  vii.  28-36) 

1.  The  second  kind  of  bloody  sacrifice  is  known  by  various 
names;  the  commonest  is  schelem,  or  sebach  schelamim  = 
peace  offering  *•  =  elprjvucij  sc.  6v<r(a  (Sept.);  the  others  are 
sebach  hattoda  =  thank  or  praise  offering,  sebach  neder== 
votive  offering,  sebach  nedab  a  =  freewill  offering.  We  may 
assume  that  "peace  offering "  is  a  general  name,  and  that  the 

1  The  name  seems  to  have  been  chosen  by  way  of  contrast  to  the  sin 
and  trespass  offerings,  which  presupposed  a  sort  of  separation  between 
God  and  man,  whereas  this  sacrifice  has  a  more  cheerful  character,  and 
man  appears  as  God's  guest  at  the  sacrificial  meals. 


SACRED   RITUAL  111 

three  other   expressions   designate   particular   kinds   of   peace 
offerings. 

2.  Every  animal  regarded  as  fit  for  sacrifice  could  be  used 
as  a  peace  offering;    it  was  not  necessary  that  it  should  be  a 
male,  and  for  freewill  offerings  of  this  kind  animals  might  be 
taken  that  had  some  imperfection  in  them. 

3.  The  ritual  began  like  that  of  the  holocaust.     The  blood 
was  sprinkled  all  round  the  altar,  but  from  this  point  the  pro- 
cedure differed.     Only  four,  or,  in  the  case  of  sheep,  five  parts 
of  the  victim  were  placed  on  the  altar,  viz. :  (1)  the  fatty  tissues 
enclosing  the  entrails;  (2)  the  fat  on  the  entrails;  (3)  the  two 
kidneys;  (4)  the  liver,  and  (in  sheep)   (5)  the  fat  tail  ('alja). 

The  breast  (chase)  and  the  right  leg  (schoq)  x  were  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  flesh,  and  laid  by  the  priest  on  the  hands 
of  the  man  offering  the  sacrifice.  Then  the  priest  laid  his  own 
hands  under  those  of  the  offerer,  and  made  a  movement  forwards 
(towards  the  altar  and  the  sanctuary)  and  back  again,  —  this 
ceremony  was  called  "waving"  (tenupJia),  —  then  another 
movement  from  below  upwards,  and  then  down  again,  which 
was  called  "heaving"  (teruma).  After  this  the  pieces  of  fat 
were  burnt  on  the  altar,  and  a  sacrificial  meal  followed.  The 
breast  (wave  offering)  and  the  leg  (heave  offering)  2  were  eaten 
by  the  priests,  and  their  wives  and  children  could  share  the 
food.  The  people  who  offered  the  sacrifice  consumed  the  rest 
on  the  holy  spot,  being  in  a  condition  of  legal  purity.  If  the 
sacrifice  was  a  thank  offering,  the  meal  was  bound  to  take  place 
on  the  day  that  the  victim  was  killed;  if  it  was  a  free-will  or  a 
votive  offering,  the  flesh  remaining  over  from  that  day  might 
be  consumed  on  the  following  morning,  but  whatever  was  still 

1  The  right  hind  leg  must  be  meant,  for  schoq  means  runner,  and  is 
used  of  the  thigh  of  a  man's  leg,  below  the  loins.    The  Septuagint  read- 
ing is  Ppaxiuv  and  the  Vulgate  armus  =  shoulder.    Cf.  Knobel  on  Leviti- 
cus vii.  32,  33 ;    Scholz,  Altertumer,  II,  175. 

2  Chase  hattenupha,  schoq  hatteruma.    It  seems  that  sometimes  only 
the  breast  was  "  waved  "  and  only  the  leg  "  heaved,"  but  sometimes  the 
two  movements  were  connected.    Exodus  xxix.  26,  27 :    "  take  the  breast 
.  .  .  and  elevating  it  thou  shalt  sanctify  it  to  the  Lord  .  .  .  and  thou 
shalt  sanctify  both  the  consecrated  breast  and  the  shoulder."    The  cere- 
mony signified  that  the  portions  of  the  victim  should  be  devoted  to  the 
sanctuary  and  lifted  up  to  the  altar. 


112    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

left  had  to  be  burnt.1     An  unbloody  offering  always  accom- 
panied sacrifices  of  this  kind  also. 


23.    Six  OFFERINGS 
(Leviticus  iv.  1,  etc.,  vi.  24^30) 

1.  The  third  kind  of  sacrifice  bears  the  same  name  as  the 
sin  =  chattath,  and  the  very  name  shows  that  in  this  case  the 
victim  was  offered  as  an  atonement  for  definite  transgressions. 
These  were  not,  however,  intentional,  as  every  intentional  vio- 
lation of  the  law  was  punishable  with  death;    but  they  were 
rather  unintentional  faults  and  certain  conditions  of  unclean- 
ness,  which  had  some  resemblance  to  or  connection  with  sin, 
such  as  leprosy,  issue  of  blood.     Moreover,  at  certain  times  it 
was  required  that  sin  offerings  should  be  made  on  behalf  of 
the  whole  people,  for  it  was  taken  for  granted  that  many  un- 
noticed violations  of  the  law  must  have  occurred. 

Before  our  Lord's  coming  there  was  no  certain  outward  means  of  get- 
ting rid  of  sin,  for  the  so-called  "  sacraments  of  the  Old  Covenant "  (cir- 
cumcision, consecration  of  priests  and  Levites,  the  Paschal  lamb  and  the 
various  sacrifices  and  purifications)  could  not  of  themselves  remove  sin; 
they  secured  only  righteousness  in  the  eyes  of  the  law.  Hence  Saint 
Paul  calls  them  ( Gral.  iv.  9 )  "  weak  and  needy  elements."  The  means  of 
removing  sin  were  the  inward  acts  of  faith  in  a  future  Redeemer  (Heb. 
xi.)  which  found  expression  in  prayer  and  in  sacrifice,  accompanied  with 
an  acknowledgment  of  guilt.  Cf.  p.  107. 

2.  The  occasions  when  a  sin  offering  had  to  be  made,  can  be 
divided  into  (a)  permanent  occasions  recurring  at  certain  fixed 
times,  and  (&)   unforeseen  occasions. 

a.  The  fixed  times  when  sin  offerings  had  to  be  made  were 
(a)  the  Pasch,  (6)  Pentecost,  (c)  feast  of  Tabernacles,  (d) 
Day  of  Atonement,  (e)  the  New  Year's  festival,  (/)  the  New 
Moons,  i.  e.  the  first  day  of  each  month.  At  each  of  these 
seasons  a  sin  offering  was  made  for  the  whole  people,  the  victim 
being  always  a  he-goat. 

2  The  Agape  of  the  early  Christians  had  probably  no  connection  with 
these  sacrificial  feasts  of  the  Old  Testament,  but  was  an  imitation  of  the 
Paschal  supper,  eaten  by  our  Lord  and  His  Apostles  before  the  institu- 
tion of  the  holy  Eucharist. 


SACRED   RITUAL  113 

b.  The  unforeseen  occasions  were  much  more  numerous.  As 
chief  of  them  may  be  mentioned:  (a)  the  purification  of  a 
woman  after  childbirth;  (6)  the  purification  of  a  leper  or  of 
one  suffering  from  any  discharge;  (c)  the  purification  of  a 
woman  with  an  issue  of  blood.  In  these  cases  doves  were  gen- 
erally offered,  (d)  If  the  high  priest  accidentally  violated  any 
precept  in  the  law,  he  sacrificed  a  young  bullock,  free  from  all 
blemish,  (e)  If  the  whole  community  had  transgressed  in  the 
same  way,  the  same  offering  had  to  be  made.  (/)  In  such  case 
the  head  of  a  tribe  or  family  offered  a  he-goat,  (g)  Any  indi- 
vidual Israelite  atoned  for  such  a  transgression  by  offering  a 
she-goat. 

3.  With  regard  to  the  ritual  observed,  sin  offerings  were 
divided  into  two  classes,  interior  and  exterior.  The  former  were 
sacrifices  in  which  the  blood  of  the  victim  was  carried  inside  the 
Temple  or  Tabernacle.  The  latter  were  sacrifices  in  which  the 
blood  only  was  taken  to  the  altar  of  holocausts.  The  flesh 
of  the  victims  in  the  former  class  of  sin  offerings  was  burnt 
outside  the  city  or  the  camp.  The  flesh  of  the  victims  in  the 
second  class  was  eaten  by  the  priests,  with  the  exception  of  the 
pieces  of  fat,  which  were  burnt  on  the  altar.  Interior  sin  offer- 
ings were  the  more  important;  such  was,  for  instance,  the 
sacrifice  on  the  great  Day  of  Atonement.1 

24.    TRESPASS  OFFERINGS 
(Leviticus  v.  15,  etc.;   Vulgate,  also  vi.  2,  etc.) 

1.  The  Hebrew  name  for  this  kind  of  offering  is  *ascliam  = 
guilt.  The  ritual  for  it  was  the  same  as  that  for  the  sin 
offering,  and  therefore  many  archaeologists  identify  the  two,  and 
regard  'ascliam  only  as  a  particular  kind  of  chattath.  Those  who 

1  Cf.  on  this  subject  Heb.  xiii.  10-15,  which  is  explained  as  follows: 
It  was  certainly  no  mere  accident  that  Christ  was  crucified  outside  the 
city.  He  died  as  a  sin  offering.  The  Jews  were  forbidden  to  eat  the 
flesh  of  the  more  important  sin  offerings;  it  had  to  be  burnt  outside 
the  city.  Therefore  the  author  of  this  epistle  calls  upon  the  Jewish 
Christians  thus :  "  Let  us  go  forth  to  him  without  the  camp,  bearing  his 
reproach  "  —  let  us  separate  ourselves  from  the  Jews,  let  us  share  in  His 
sacrifice,  even  if  those  who  believe  not  despise. 


114    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

identify  them  reckon  only  three  bloody  sacrifices.  There  are, 
however,  differences  in  the  cause  for  these  sacrifices  and  in  their 
object,  (a)  The  trespass  offering  was  always  made  for  an 
individual,  whilst  the  sin  offering  might  also  be  on  behalf 
of  the  whole  people.  (&)  The  chief  difference  lies  in  the  fact 
that  a  trespass  offering  was  always  connected  with  some  in- 
jury committed  to  the  rights  of  God  Himself  or  of  a  man's 
neighbors;  whereas,  no  such  thing  was  presupposed  in  the  case 
of  a  sin  offering.  The  damage  done  had  to  be  made  good,  a 
fifth  of  the  value  being  paid  in  addition,  and  a  sacrifice 
offered. 

2.  In  the  Law  of  Moses  several  cases  are  mentioned  in  which 
a  trespass  offering  was  required.    The  chief  are:  (a)  If  a  man 
keep  back  or  diminish  the  duties  payable  to  the  priests.     (&)   If 
he  deny  the  receipt  of  a  deposit,  or  that  he  has   found  or 
damaged  anything,     (c)  If  he  unintentionally  violate  the  law 
to  the  detriment  of  his  neighbor,  and  later  recognize  his  fault. 
In  every  case,  as  with  the  sin  offerings,  it  is  assumed  that  the 
fault  proceeded,  not  from  malice,  but  from  inattention  and 
carelessness. 

3.  The  victim  was  a  ram,  sometimes  a  lamb. 

4.  Ritual.     The  blood  was  sprinkled  on  the  altar  of  holo- 
causts; the  fat  was  burnt  on  the  altar  and  the  rest  of  the  flesh 
was  eaten  by  the  priests  within  the  sacred  precincts.     Thus  the 
ritual  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  exterior  sin  offerings. 

The  rationalistic  theory  of  sacrifice  denies  the  Mosaic  origin  of  the 
various  kinds  of  offering  and  seeks  to  explain  the  bloody  sacrifice  by  the 
act  of  killing.  "  At  all  times  people  have  shrunk  from  attacking  nature. 
One  of  the  most  grievous  attacks  possible  is  killing,  i.  e.  suppressing,  de- 
stroying the  life  of  an  animal  created  by  God.  As,  however,  men  desired 
to  slaughter  animals,  and  were  obliged  to  do  so,  they  tried  to  calm  their 
fears  at  least  by  restoring  to  God,  i.  e.  by  sacrificing,  the  blood,  in  which 
is  the  life.  As  often  as  they  prepared  flesh  food  they  gave  a  befitting 
share  to  the  Deity.  If  the  feast  was  particularly  solemn,  or  if  many 
were  invited  to  share  it,  the  Deity  received  a  whole  animal.  In  this  way 
arose  first  the  kind  of  sacrifice  called  later  peace  offerings,  but  originally 
referred  to  as  victims  or  offerings  (I  Kings  iii.  14)  and  subsequently  the 
holocausts  (Deut.  xii.  11)  developed.  In  very  early  times  sacrifices  of 
atonement  (sin  and  trespass  offerings)  were  unknown.  They  arose  first 
out  of  the  consciousness  of  guilt  felt  by  the  people  in  exile  —  hence  they 
are  mentioned  for  the  first  time  in  the  Priests'  Code." 


SACRED   RITUAL  115 

All  these  are  arbitrary  assumptions.  The  act  of  slaughtering  was 
not  accompanied  by  sacrifice  ( Gen.  xviii.  7 )  -1 

The  so-called  "  Priests'  Code  "  dates,  as  we  have  shown  on  p.  46,  etc., 
not  from  the  time  of  the  Captivity,  but  from  a  far  earlier  period.  And 
quite  apart  from  these  considerations,  the  custom  of  offering  human 
sacrifices,  once  prevailing  over  the  whole  world,  is  opposed  to  this  theory. 
Human  sacrifices  point  to  a  primeval  consciousness  of  guilt  felt  by  the 
whole  human  race,  and  they  certainly  belonged  to  the  earliest  period, 
since  they  were  of  universal  occurrence.  On  the  subject  of  consuming 
blood,  see  page  131,  Laws  concerning  Food. 

25.    SPECIAL  KINDS  OF  BLOODY  SACRIFICES 

The  Sacrifice  of  the  Red  Cow 
(Num.  xix.) 

This  peculiar  sacrifice  was  not  made  either  in  the  Tabernacle 
or  in  the  Temple,  but  outside  the  camp  or  town.  A  young 
full-grown  cow,  red  in  color  and  without  blemish,  that  had 
never  carried  the  yoke,  was  chosen  and  given  over  to  the  priest. 
He  had  to  lead  her  outside  the  camp  or  town,  in  later  times 
always  to  the  Mount  of  Olives,  and  kill  her  there.  Then  dipping 
his  finger  in  her  blood,  he  sprinkled  it  seven  times  towards 
the  Tabernacle  or  Temple.  Then  the  cow's  body  was  laid  on 
a  pile  of  wood,  which  was  set  on  fire,  cedar  wood  hyssop  and 
scarlet  wood  being  laid  upon  it.  The  cow  had  to  be  reduced 
to  ashes,  which  were  sifted  and  then  used  in  the  preparation  of 
water  for  purification.  If  any  one  had  incurred  one  of  the  legal 
defilements,  he  had  to  be  separated  from  the  people,  and  could 
only  be  purified  again  after  the  lapse  of  a  definite  time ;  the  puri- 
fication consisted  of  being  sprinkled  with  water  containing  some 
of  the  red  cow's  ashes.  Not  only  persons,  but  vessels,  houses  and 
tents,  were  sprinkled  with  this  water  and  restored  to  their 
normal  condition,2  if  they  had  become  legally  unclean 3  (cf.  Heb. 
ix.  13). 

1  Abraham    caused  beasts  to  be  slain  as  soon  as  the  three  strangers 
arrived. 

2  A  bunch  of  hyssop,  fastened  by  a  red  thread  to  a  stick  of  cedar  wood, 
was  used  for  sprinkling  persons  or  things. 

3  The  red  cow  seems  to  represent  the  people  of  Israel,  that  through 
their  repeated  unfaithfulness   (red  symbolizes  guilt)  had  deserved  death, 
i.  e.  destruction,  but  through  faith  in  the  future  Messias  and  by  doing 
penance  might  hope  for  salvation. 


116    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

Sacrifice  for  Lepers 
(Leviticus  xiy.) 

When  a  leper  recovered  from  his  disease,  he  had  to  show 
himself  to  a  priest,  and  if  the  latter  judged  him  to  be  cured, 
he  had  to  bring  two  living  birds,  which  must  be  "  clean,"  not 
birds  of  prey  that  eat  carrion,  and  also  a  bunch  of  hyssop. 
One  of  the  birds  was  killed  over  living  water  (i.  e.  water  from 
a  spring  or  a  river)  in  such  a  way  that  its  blood  dripped  into  the 
water,  into  which  the  bunch  of  hyssop  was  dipped,  and  the  healed 
leper  sprinkled  seven  times.  The  other  bird  was  dipped  in 
the  same  water  and  then  allowed  to  fly  away;  this  symbolized 
the  recovery  of  health.  Then  the  man  who  was  healed  washed 
his  clothes,  cut  his  hair  and  bathed  his  body,  and  thenceforth 
he  was  clean,  and  might  come  into  the  camp  or  city,  though 
he  must  not  occupy  his  tent  or  house  for  another  week.  On 
the  eighth  day  he  had  to  bring  a  threefold  sacrifice,1  and  was 
then  on  a  level  with  all  the  other  Israelites. 

The  significance  of  the  ceremony  concerning  the  two  birds  was  prob- 
ably this:  The  leper  was  to  acknowledge  that  as  a  sinner  he  had  de- 
served death,  which  is  "  the  wages  of  sin,"  but  he  was  preserved  through 
the  offering  of  living  creatures,  which  the  justice  of  God  accepted  as 
types  of  a  better  sacrifice. 

The  Nazirite  Sacrifice 
(Num.  vi.  1-21) 

Every  Israelite  could,  by  a  vow,  consecrate  himself  exclusively 
to  God,  either  for  a  definite  period  or  for  life.  Persons  bound 
by  such  a  vow  were  called  Nazirites,  i.  e.  set  apart  (TU  from  *in, 

1  Namely,  a  trespass  offering  (a  ram  and  one  log  of  oil) ,  a  sin  offering 
(a  female  lamb)  and  a  burnt  offering  (a  ram  and  three  issaron  of  fine 
flour ) .  In  case  of  poverty  two  pigeons  might  be  used  for  the  burnt  and 
sin  offerings,  and  only  one  issaron  of  flour  was  required,  but  no  reduc- 
tion could  be  made  in  the  trespass  offering,  which  was  required  because 
the  leper,  during  his  illness,  had  been  unable  to  render  any  service  in  the 
sanctuary  or  to  his  neighbors;  a  sin  offering  was  necessary,  because  he 
had  been  prevented  from  keeping  the  law  in  every  point,  and  a  burnt 
offering  was  his  homage  paid  to  God. 


SACRED   RITUAL  117 

to  set  apart).  The  obligations  incurred  by  those  thus  conse- 
crated were  threefold:  (1)  they  had  to  avoid  all  intoxicating 
drinks;  (2)  the  hair  of  their  head  must  be  allowed  to  grow;1 
(3)  they  were  forbidden  to  take  any  part  in  mourning  for  the 
dead.2  If  the  vow  was  temporary,  it  held  good  for  thirty  days, 
and  when  these  expired  the  Nazirite  had  to  make  a  threefold 
sacrifice,  viz.  a  sin  offering,  a  burnt  offering  and  a  thank 
offering.3  After  making  the  thank  offering,  the  Nazirite  cut 
off  the  hair  of  his  head  and  cast  it  into  the  fire  on  the  altar. 
If  a  Nazirite  broke  his  vow,  by  joining  in  lamentation  for  the 
dead,  or  in  any  other  way,  he  had  to  offer  two  pigeons  in 
reparation,  and  begin  his  time  of  consecration  over  again. 

Nazirites  were  held  in  great  respect.  Saint  John  the  Baptist  and 
Saint  James  the  Less,  the  Apostle,  were  Nazirites;  even  Saint  Paul  did 
not  hesitate  to  become  one  for  a  time. 


(W    Unbloody  Sacrifices 
26.    MEAT  OFFERINGS 

1.  A  meat  offering  was  not  always  merely  an  addition  to  a 
holocaust  or  a  peace  offering,  but  it  was  often  an  independent 
sacrifice.  Just  as  the  sin  and  trespass  offerings  stood  alone,  and 
required  no  unbloody  addition,  so  also  there  were  independent 
meat  offerings.  Such  were  especially  (1)  the  loaves  of  propo- 
sition or  shewbread;  (2)  the  Paschal  sheaf;  (3)  the  loaves  at 
Pentecost;  (4)  first  fruits,  i.e.  first  produce  of  the  soil;  (5) 
jealousy  offerings. 

1  According  to  I  Corinthians  xi.  long  hair  was  a  mark  of  a  subordinate 
position  and  of  dependence  on  another,  hence  it  befitted  women. 

2  Death  suggests  sin  and  is  due  to  sin,  but  God  is  the  Lord  of  Life, 
who  will  bestow  eternal  life  on  all  that  serve  Him.     Probably  also  some 
heathen  superstitions  were  often  connected  with  mourning  for  the  dead, 
as  a  cultus  of  the  dead  was  very  common  among  the  Gentiles,  and  who- 
ever took  part  in  it  showed  a  tendency  to  heathenism. 

*  A  sin  offering,  because  during  the  time  of  consecration  some  trans- 
gressions of  the  law  might  have  occurred;  a  burnt  offering,  because  the 
Nazirite  wished  to  show  especial  honor  to  God;  a  thank  offering,  to  ex- 
press his  gratitude  for  the  successful  completion  of  the  period  for  which 
he  had  taken  the  vow. 


118    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

In  addition  to  these,  which  were  prescribed  by  law,  there  were 
probably  (Lev.  ii.  1,  etc.)  also  free-will  meat  offerings. 

2.  Ritual.  Of  the  meat  offerings  that  accompanied  bloody 
sacrifices,  only  a  small  part,  about  as  much  as  could  be  grasped 
with  three  fingers,  was  taken  as  ascara,  i.  e.  reminder,  memorialed 
and  burnt  in  the  fire  on  the  altar.  The  rest  belonged  to  the 
priest.  An  independent  meat  offering,  especially  such  as  priests 
had  to  offer  for  themselves,  was  often  altogether  burnt  (Lev.  vi. 
23),  though  sometimes  only  the  portion  taken  as  a  reminder 
was  put  on  the  altar.  As  a  rule  the  meat  offerings  belonged 
solely  to  the  priests,  e.  g.  the  first  fruits  of  fields  and  gardens 
(Lev.  ii.  12). 

27.   DRINK  OFFERINGS 

Only  wine  might  be  used  for  a  drink  offering,  and  according 
to  Josephus  Flavius  it  was  poured  out  all  round  the  altar.  There 
were  no  independent  drink  offerings,  but,  in  conjunction  with 
meat  offerings,  they  were  connected  with  the  bloody  sacrifices, 
viz.  holocausts  and  peace  offerings.  The  quantity  of  wine  used 
corresponded  with  the  size  of  the  victim.  For  a  bullock  half  a 
hin  of  wine  was  taken,  for  a  ram  one-third,  and  for  a  lamb 
a  quarter  (Num.  xxviii.  14 ).2  In  the  Temple  there  was  an 

1  This  probably  means  that  the  fact  of  burning  these  things  before 
God  should  remind  men  of  the  fulfillment  of  their  duty. 

2  The  measures  for  liquids  were :    ( 1 )  the  Bath ;   ( 2 )  the  Hin,  a  sixth 
part  of  the  Bath ;   ( 3 )  the  Log,  a  twelfth  part  of  the  Hin.    The  measures 
for   solids  were:    (1)    the   Chomer   or  Kor;    (2)    the  Letech,  half  the 
chomer;   (3)  the  Epha,  the  tenth  part  of  the  chomer;   (4)  the  Seah,  one- 
third  of  the  epha;    (5)  the  Omer   (issaron),  one-tenth  of  the  Epha  (Ex. 
xvi.  36)  ;    (6)   the  Kab,  the  sixth  of  the  seah.     There  are  difficulties  in 
reducing  these  measures  to  those  now  in  use.     Josephus  Flavius  says 
(Ant.,  VIII,  2,  9)  that  the  epha  and  bath  were  both  equal  to  an  Attic 
methetes   (about  8  gallons).     The  Rabbinical  mode  of  reckoning,  which 
was  very  inexact,  gave  the  capacity  of  a  Log  as  =  six  hens'  eggs.    This 
would  make  the  log  =  nearly  half  a  pint,  the  hin  about  five  pints,  the 
bath  four  gallons.    The  kab  would  be  nearly  a  quart;    the  omer  nearly 
half  a  gallon;    the  seah  1^4  gallons,  the  epha   (like  the  bath)  four  gal- 
lons, the  letech  about  20  gallons  and  the  chomer  about  40  gallons.    Ben- 
zinger  follows  Josephus  and  doubles  all  these  quantities,  therefore  the 
chomer  is  equivalent  to  about  80  gallons,  reckoning  the  log  as  =  one  pint, 
etc.      But    the   contents    of    six    hens'    eggs    can    only   be    half    a    pint 
(Cf.  John  ii.  6) ;   the  six  water  pots  at  Cana  would  at  this  rate  have  con- 
tained between  100  and  130  gallons. 


SACRED   RITUAL  119 

official  who  superintended  the  drink  offerings,  and  the  requisite 
wine  could  be  bought  of  him. 

A  libation  of  water  was  made»on  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (see  p.  153) . 
Similar  libations  are  mentioned  in  I  Kings  vii.  6  and  II  Kings  xxiii.  16. 


28.  JEALOUSY  OFFERINGS 

(Num.  v.  11-31) 

When  a  husband  suspected  his  wife  of  adultery  but  could 
not  prove  her  guilt,  he  brought  her  to  a  priest,  with  a  meat 
offering  consisting  of  one-tenth  of  an  epha  of  barley  meal.  The 
priest  took  some  of  the  sacred  water  from  the  laver  in  the 
Temple  Court,  in  an  earthern  vessel,  mixed  with  it  some  dust 
from  the  floor  of  the  sanctuary,  uncovered  the  woman's  head, 
laid  the  meat  offering  in  her  hands  and  pronounced  a  formula 
of  words,  assuring  her  that  if  she  drank  the  water,  being  inno- 
cent, it  would  do  her  no  harm;  if  she  were  guilty,  it  would 
destroy  her  body.  The  woman  replied  "Amen,  Amen/'  Then 
he  wrote  the  curse  on  a  roll  of  parchment,  washed  the  writing 
off  in  the  same  water,  took  the  meat  offering,  laid  an 
ascara  on  the  altar,  and  finally  gave  the  woman  the  water  to 
drink. 

This  ordeal  is  only  apparently  hard  upon  the  woman;  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  as  soon  as  the  offering  was  made  she  was  free  from  all 
suspicion.  It  served  to  protect  her  from  reproaches  and  ill  treatment, 
and  hence  women  must  often  have  desired  and  demanded  it. 

29.  THE  TEMPLE  TAXES 

Every  Israelite  over  twenty  years  of  age  had  to  pay  half  a 
shekel  yearly  to  the  Temple.  This  tax  was  payable  not  only 
in  Palestine,  but  by  all  the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion.  Whoever 
could  not  pay  it  in  person,  sent  the  money  to  Jerusalem  through 
collectors  or  pilgrims. 

Similar  offerings  for  the  sanctuary  were  demanded  even  by 
Moses.  In  Exodus  xxx.  12-16  we  read:  "Every  one  of  them 
shall  give  a  price  for  their  souls  to  the  Lord,  and  there  shall 
be  no  scourge  among  them.  .  .  .  Half  a  side  shall  be  offered  to 


120    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

the  Lord.  He  that  is  counted  in  the  number  from  twenty 
years  and  upwards,  shall  give  the  price.  The  rich  man  shall 
not  add  to  half  a  side,  and  the  poor  man  shall  diminish  nothing. 
And  the  money  received  .  .  .  thou  shalt  deliver  unto  the  uses 
of  the  tabernacle  of  the  testimony."  This  seems  to  have  been 
a  single,  not  a  yearly  payment.  Later  the  tax  was  collected 
from  time  to  time  when  there  was  unusual  need  of  money 
(II  Chron.  xxiv.  6),  but  after  the  Captivity  Nehemias  required 
a  yearly  tribute  ;  he  diminished  it,  however,  to  one-third  shekel, 
perhaps  on  account  of  the  poverty  of  the  Jews  at  that  time 
(Nehem.  x.  32).  "We  make  ordinances  for  ourselves  to  give 
the  third  part  of  a  side  every  year  for  the  work  of  the  house  of 
our  God."  At  the  time  of  Christ  the  amount  had  been  raised 
again  to  half  a  shekel  =  a  double  drachma  (Matt.  xvii.  23). 
In  the  Holy  Land  the  tax  was  payable  in  the  month  Adar 
(February)  ;  as  it  had  to  be  paid  in  half  shekel,  pieces,  and 
other  coins  were  in  use  all  over  the  country,  places  for 
the  exchange  of  money  existed,  both  in  the  Temple  and  in  the 
provinces.  Priests  and  Levites  also  paid  this  tax. 


The  shekel  (fW  =  weight;  in  the  Septuagint  the  word  is  rendered 
didpaxfjiov,  in  the  Vulgate  siclus  argenti)  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the 
time  of  Abraham,  who  acquired  a  piece  of  land  at  Hebron  for  four 
hundred  silver  shekels  (Gen.  xxiii.  15).  Subsequently  we  hear  of  half 
and  quarter  shekels  (  Ex.  xxx.  and  xxxviii.  and  I  Kings  ix.  )  .  Very  large 
sums  were  reckoned  in  talents  (  rd\avrov  =  balance,  weight;  Heb.,  133? 
circle,  i.  e.  a  large  silver  disc  =  3000  shekels).  The  mina  (fivd  =  weight, 
Heb.  r^D  =  -fa  talent)  was  a  silver  coin  worth  50  shekels.  After  the 
Captivity  values  were  often  given  in  darics,  Persian  coins  ;  and  still  later 
Greek  coins  also  became  current,  especially  the  stater  and  the  drachma. 
The  Machabees  again  had  shekels  coined,  but  were  not  able  to  abolish  the 
use  of  western  coins.  Some  of  their  shekels  exist  at  the  present  time. 
Under  the  Romans  their  coinage  too  became  current,  viz.  the  as  (prop- 
erly etc),  denarius  (piece  of  10  as),  quadrans  (*4  as),  and  the  lepton 
(\cTrrbv  sc.  p<5/u0y*a,  little  coin,  %  quadrans). 

The  value  of  these  coins  in  our  money  may  be  determined  approxi- 
mately as  follows:  The  Machabean  shekels  that  have  been  discovered 
weigh  on  an  average  14.55  grammes;  so  that  their  value  is  about  60 
cents;  a  mina  is  worth  about  $30  and  a  silver  talent  about  $1800.  The 
daric  was  of  the  same  value  as  the  shekel.  The  drachma  weighed  4.36 
grammes,  and  was  worth  about  18  cents,  the  double  drachma  about 
35  cents,  and  the  stater,  four  drachmas,  about  75  cents,  although  the  Jews 
regarded  the  stater  as  equivalent  to  their  shekel,  and  so  demanded  a 
double  drachma  as  the  Temple  tax.  In  the  time  of  our  Lord  the  Roman 


SACRED   RITUAL  121 

as  was  a  copper  coin  worth  about  one  cent  in  our  money.  The  de- 
marius  was  a  silver  coin,  which  originally  contained  10  as,  but  in  the 
time  of  Christ  16,  so  that  its  value  was  about  16  cents.  The  Romans 
reckoned  the  denarius  as  equivalent  to  the  drachma. 


II.    PURIFICATIONS   AND   OTHER  RELIGIOUS  CEREMONIES 
30.    LEGAL  DEFILEMENT 

In  the  Law  of  Moses  certain  natural  conditions  are  said  to 
constitute  uncleanness  in  persons  who  have  made  a  covenant 
with  God,  and  directions  are  given  for  removing  this  defile- 
ment. The  reason  is  that  these  conditions  are  due  to  sin  and 
bear  a  resemblance  to  it.  They  fall  into  three  classes:  the  de- 
filement of  death,  the  uncleanness  of  leprosy,  and  sexual  un- 
cleanness. 

31.   THE  DEFILEMENT  OF  DEATH 
(Num.  ix.  11,  etc.) 

A  human  corpse  defiled  (1)  the  tent  or  house  in  which  it 
lay,  all  open  vessels  in  that  house,  and  the  people  living  in  it 
or  entering  it,  for  the  space  of  seven  days.  In  the  same  way 
(2)  contact  with  a  corpse  or  bones  or  a  grave  made  a  man 
unclean  for  seven  days.  (3)  The  defilement  of  death  was 
contagious,  for  every  person  and  thing  touched  by  the  unclean 
person  became  unclean  until  the  evening.  (4)  The  dead  body 
of  an  animal  caused  any  one  who  touched  it  to  be  unclean  until 
the  evening. 

For  the  removal  of  this  uncleanness,  persons  and  things  had 
to  be  sprinkled,  on  the  third  and  seventh  days  after  contracting 
it,  with  water  of  purification  specially  prepared  (from  the  red 
cow).  Human  beings  were  required,  moreover,  to  take  a  bath 
on  the  seventh  day,  and  to  wash  their  clothes.  For  those  who 
were  unclean  until  the  evening,  including  the  man  who  per- 
formed the  ceremony  of  sprinkling  with  the  water  of  puri- 
fication, and  any  one  else  who  accidentally  touched  this  water, 
it  sufficed  to  take  a  bath  and  to  wash  their  garments. 

According  to  Benzinger  (481)  the  idea  that  death  caused  defilement 
was  only  "  the  energetic  protest  of  the  Yahweh  religion  against  any  cul- 


122    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

tus  of  the  dead,  and  a  most  emphatic  condemnation  of  the  same."  The 
theory  that  death  was  a  consequence  of  original  sin  was  based  upon  the 
epistle  to  the  Romans,  and  then  referred  by  Christian  theologians  to  the 
Old  Testament.  Benzinger,  however,  would  do  well  to  turn  his  attention 
to  the  author  of  the  Book  of  Wisdom  (i.  13;  ii.  23,  24)  and  also  to  Saint 
Paul  (Romans  v.  12;  vi.  23),  who  lived  under  the  old  Covenant  and 
drew  upon  Jewish  opinions  and  tradition.  The  underlying  reason  is  to 
be  found  in  the  recognition  of  the  fact  that  death,  the  "  wages  of  sin,"  is 
something  foreign  to  human  nature,  imposed  upon  it,  that  must  be  again 
removed  from  it.  By  this  means  the  desire  for  release  could  be  kept 
alive,  and  it  was  intended  that  this  should  be  so.  The  same  holds  good 
of  sickness,  the  most  appalling  form  of  which  is  leprosy,  and  also  of 
various  abnormal  sexual  conditions. 


32.   UNCLEANNESS  DUE  TO  LEPROSY 

Leprosy  rendered  every  person  attacked  by  the  disease  un- 
clean. If  any  one  was  suffering  from  a  suspicious  eruption, 
he  had  to  show  himself  to  a  priest,  and  if  the  latter  recognized 
his  disease  as  true  leprosy  (according  to  the  rules  laid  down  in 
Leviticus  xiii.)  and  declared  it  to  be  such,  he  was  bound  forth- 
with to  exclude  the  unhappy  man  from  all  intercourse  with 
healthy  people.  The  leper  had  to  rend  his  garments  (i.  e.  tear 
them  down  a  short  distance  over  his  breast),  uncover  his  head, 
muffle  up  his  chin,  and  cry  to  every  one  meeting  him :  "  Unclean, 
unclean !  "  His  dwelling  could  only  be  outside  the  camp  or  out- 
side any  inhabited  place.  It  very  rarely  happened  that  any  one  re- 
covered from  leprosy;  but  when  this  occurred,  he  had  again  to 
allow  himself  to  be  examined  by  a  priest,  and  if  the  latter  judged 
him  to  be  really  free  from  the  disease,  the  prescribed  ceremonies 
had  to  be  performed  for  his  purification,  and  offerings  made  as 
described  above  (p.  116). 

Besides  human  leprosy,  the  Mosaic  law  recognized  a  leprosy 
affecting  houses  and  clothes. 

Leprosy  in  a  house  (Lev.  xiv.  33,  etc.)  showed  itself  by  spots 
and  dents  of  a  greenish  or  reddish  color  on  the  walls.  As  soon 
as  this  was  noticed,  the  owner  of  the  house  had  to  give  in- 
formation to  a  priest,  who,  if  he  thought  the  condition  of  the 
house  suspicious,  had  all  the  furniture  removed,  and  locked  up 
the  house  for  seven  days.  If  he  found  on  the  eighth  day  that  the 
mischief  had  spread,  he  caused  the  stones  to, be  removed  at  the 


SACRED   RITUAL  123 

suspicious  part,  the  whitewash  scraped  off,  and  all  that  was 
taken  away  thrown  outside  the  town  or  village  on  to  some 
unclean  place.  New  stones  were  then  built  into  the  wall  and 
the  whole  was  whitewashed.  If  the  mischief  appeared  again, 
the  leprosy  was  pronounced  malignant,  the  house  was  declared 
unclean  by  the  priest,  and  had  to  be  pulled  down.  If,  however, 
nothing  fresh  showed  itself  through  the  new  whitewash,  the 
priest  declared  that  the  evil  was  remedied,  the  house  was  purified 
by  means  of  ceremonies  resembling  those  by  which  a  man  healed 
of  leprosy  was  purified,  and  it  could  then  be  inhabited  again. 

Leprosy  of  garments  (Lev.  xiii.  47,  etc.)  showed  itself  in 
greenish  or  reddish  marks  appearing  on  woolen  or  linen  clothes 
and  stuffs,  and  also  on  leather.  As  soon  as  information  was 
given  to  the  priest,  he  locked  up  the  suspected  article  for  seven 
days.  If,  on  re-examining  it  on  the  seventh  day,  he  found  that 
the  mark  had  increased,  he  pronounced  the  article  unclean,  and 
it  was  burnt.  If,  however,  the  leprous  mark  had  grown  fainter, 
the  part  affected  was  taken  out  and  burnt,  and  the  article  could, 
after  being  washed,  be  used  again,  provided  no  new  spots 
appeared. 

Much  obscurity  rests  on  the  nature  of  this  evil.  Leprosy  in  houses 
may  perhaps  be  identified  with  a  kind  of  rot,  injurious  to  health,  and  due 
to  the  corrosive  action  of  something  resembling  saltpeter.1  Leprosy  in 
clothes  may  be  a  kind  of  mold,  caused  by  damp  and  want  of  air,  and 
destructive  to  woven  materials  and  leather.  But  there  is  perhaps  an  as- 
sumption that  through  want  of  cleanliness  human  leprosy  can  be  imparted 
to  houses  and  clothes,  and  therefore  measures  must  be  taken  to  prevent 
the  disease  from  spreading. 

33.    SEXUAL  UNCLEANNESS 

1.  Vir,  qui  patitur  fluxum  seminis,  immundus  erit.  A. 
chronic  morbid  condition  is  meant.  The  uncleanness  connected 
with  it  extended  to  the  persons,  furniture  and  utensils  touched 
by  the  sick  man.  Persons  so  touched  were  unclean  until  the 
evening,  and  were  obliged  to  wash  their  clothes  and  to  bathe. 
Earthen  utensils  must  be  broken,  wooden  ones  washed  with  water. 

1  Father  Jullien,  S.J.,  refers  to  Leviticus  xiv.  in  his  account  of  this  rot 
appearing  in  the  basement  of  dwelling  houses  in  Egypt. 


124    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

For  the  ceremony  of  purification  after  recovery  two  pigeons  were 
required  as  burnt  and  sin  offerings  (Lev.  xv.  2-15). 

2.  Coitus  viri  cum  uxore  ambo  immundos  reddit  usque  ad 
vesperam,  ac  sc  et  vestimenta  aqua  lavabunt  (Lev.  xv.  16-18). 

3.  Homo,  qui  nocturno  pollutus  sit  somnio,  egredietur  extra 
castra  et  non  revertetur,  priusquam  ad  vesperam  lavetur  aqua 
(Deut.  xxiii.  10,  11). 

4.  A  flow  of  blood  in  women  caused  uncleanness,  as  long 
as  it  lasted.    When  it  was  over,  the  woman  had  to  present  two 
pigeons  as  burnt  and  sin  offerings  (Lev.  xv.  25,  etc.). 

5.  Menstruation  made  a  woman  unclean  for  seven  days.    Per- 
sons and  things  that  she  touched  were  unclean  until  the  evening, 
and  required  purification  in  the  way  described.     On  the  seventh 
day  she  had  to  bathe  (Lev.  xv.  19,  etc.). 

6.  After  childbirth  (Lev.  xii.  6-8)  a  woman  was  unclean,— 
for  seven  days  after  the  birth  of  a  son,  and  for  fourteen  days 
after  that  of  a  daughter.     Moreover,  in  the  former  case  she 
had  to  remain  at  home  for  thirty-three  days,  and  in  the  latter 
for  sixty-six ;   i.  e.  any  considerable  walks,  and  especially  visits 
to  the  sanctuary,  were  forbidden.    When  the  time  of  purification 
expired  she  had  to  present  a  lamb  as  a  burnt  offering  and  a 
pigeon  as  a  sin  offering.    If  she  were  poor,  two  pigeons  sufficed. 

34.   MARRIAGE  LAWS 

1.  God  Himself  instituted  marriage  as  a  monogamy,  but  the 
original  ordinance,  according  to  which  marriage  is  the  indis- 
soluble union  of  one  man  with  one  woman,  became  obscured  by 
sin.  Lamech,  one  of  Cain's  immediate  descendants,  had  two 
wives,  and  among  the  patriarchs  we  find  the  custom  of  having 
one  or  more  additional  wives  besides  the  real  wife.  This  was 
especially  the  case  when  there  were  no  hopes  that  the  real  wife 
would  carry  on  the  race.  This  custom  was  not  altered  by  the 
Mosaic  Law,  although  various  regulations  show  plainly  that 
monogamy  was  to  be  preferred.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  Deu- 
teronomy xvii.  17,  one  who  would  probably  become  king  of 
Israel  is  recommended  not  to  have  many  wives.  Not  much 
attention  was  paid  to  this  precept,  for  Solomon  had  700  wives 


SACKED   KITUAL  125 

and  300  concubines  (III  Kings  xi.  3).  The  Israelites  as  a 
rule  had,  however,  mostly  only  one  wife,  for  whom  a  sum  of 
money  was  paid  to  her  parents  or  relatives  when  the  marriage 
took  place ;  the  practice  of  giving  a  dowry  did  not  prevail.  The 
position  of  women  was  not  degraded,  as  with  the  Gentiles. 
Proverbs  xxxi.  shows  how  much  liberty  and  independence  a  wise 
wife  could  enjoy  in  her  household.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
monogamous  marriages  were  the  rule,  and  after  the  Captivity 
we  scarcely  hear  of  bigamy  or  polygamy.  Thus  the  way  was 
prepared  for  the  New  Testament  ordinance,  which  restored 
marriage  to  its  original  condition,  and  at  the  same  time  raised 
it  to  the  rank  of  a  Sacrament  and  bestowed  upon  it  a  special  grace. 
For  only  by  God's  grace  is  it  possible  for  fallen  man  to  observe 
the  ordinance  as  God  designed  it. 

2.  The  following  obstacles  to  marriage  are  enumerated  in  the 
Law  of  Moses: 

(1)  Marriage  with  Gentile  women,  and  especially  with  Cha- 
naanites,  was  forbidden  (Gen.  xxiv.  3;  Ex.  xxxiv.  16;  Deut.  vii. 
3).  (2)  Marriage  was  forbidden  between  persons  closely  con- 
nected by  consanguinity  or  affinity  (Lev.  xviii.  6,  etc.,  xx.  11,  etc.), 
i.  e.  a  man  might  not  marry  (a)  his  mother  or  stepmother,  (b) 
his  sister  or  half-sister,  (c)  his  aunt,  (d)  his  granddaughter,1 
(e)  his  uncle's  wife,  (/)  his  mother-in-law  or  daughter-in-law, 
(g)  his  sister-in-law,  (h)  his  step-daughter  and  step-grand- 
daughter, (i)  his  wife's  sister,  as  long  as  the  wife  is  alive.2  The 
prohibitions  are  only  stated  as  applying  to  men,  not  to  women, 
for  the  latter  had  no  freedom  of  choice,  but  submitted  to  the  will 
of  parents  or  bridegroom. 

3.  If  a  married  man  died,  leaving  no  son,  his  surviving 
brother  was  bound  to  marry  the  widow.    This  custom  of  Levirate 
marriage  exists  also  among  some  heathen  nations.     According 
to  the  Mosaic  Law,  the  eldest  son  born  of  such  a  marriage  took 
the  dead  man's  name,  and  was  regarded  as  his  legitimate  son 

1  There  is  no  mention  of  his  daughter,  probably  because  it  was  taken 
for  granted  that  such  a  sin  could  not  occur.  The  same  is  most  likely 
true  of  a  niece. 

a  Jacob's  marriages  were  exceptional,  for  his  wives  were  sisters,  but  he 
lived  before  the  law  was  given. 


126    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

and  heir.  The  object  of  this  law  was  to  secure  as  far  as  possible 
security  of  tenure  and  permanence  to  each  family.  If  the  brother- 
in-law  were  unwilling  to  comply  with  his  obligation,  the  widow 
could  summon  him  before  a  court  of  justice,  and  if  he  still 
refused,  he  had  to  put  up  with  public  reviling  from  the  widow, 
but  was  not  forced  to  marry  her  (Gen.  xxxviii.  8;  Deut.  xxv.  5; 
Matt.  xxii.  24). 

4.  As  long  as  marriage  was  not  a  Sacrament,  divorce  could 
not  altogether  be  forbidden.     According  to  Deuteronomy  xxiv. 
1-4,  it  was  permitted : 

"  If  a  man  take  a  wife,  and  have  her,  and  she  find  not  favor  in  his 
eyes  for  some  uncleanness,  he  shall  write  a  bill  of  divorce,  and  shall  give 
it  in  her  hand,  and  send  her  out  of  his  house.  And  when  she  is  departed 
and  marrieth  another  husband,  and  he  also  hateth  her  and  hath  given  her 
a  bill  of  divorce  and  Tiath  sent  her  out  of  his  house,  or  is  dead,  the  former 
husband  cannot  take  her  again  to  wife." 

The  expression  translated  "some  uncleanness"  is  in  Hebrew 
'ervath  dabar,  i.  e.  literally  shame  or  disgrace  of  a  thing,  some- 
thing arousing  horror  or  disgust.  The  doctors  of  the  law  did 
not  agree  concerning  the  interpretation  of  this  passage,  and  in 
our  Lord's  time  it  was  hotly  discussed  by  the  followers  of 
Hillel  and  Shammai.  The  former  thought  that  it  meant  any 
unpleasant  fact,  giving  rise  to  dislike,  such  as  want  of  skill  in 
cooking  on  the  woman's  part.  The  latter  believed  that  it  re- 
ferred only  to  indecencies  and  particularly  to  adultery.  The 
first  interpretation  was  the  one  commonly  accepted,  and  our 
Saviour  protested  against  this  frivolous  opinion  when  He  de- 
clared adultery  to  be  the  sole  ground  for  the  dissolution  of 
a  marriage,  and  forbade  re-marriage  under  His  new  law  (Matt. 
xix.  3-12).  Divorce  must  have  been  rare;  there  are  very  few 
allusions  to  it  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  prophet  Malachias 
(ii.  13,  etc.)  speaks  very  emphatically  against  it.  The  woman 
had  not  the  same  rights  as  the  man,  and  therefore  was  not 
entitled  to  claim  a  divorce  for  herself.  We  always  read  that 
it  was  the  wife  who  was  divorced. 

5.  Adultery,  i.  e.  intercourse  with  another  man's  wife  or  be- 
trothed, was  punished  with  death;    both  parties  were  stoned 
(Lev.  xx.  10;   Deut.  xxii.  22-24;   John  viii.  5).    This  penalty 


SACKED   RITUAL 

was  of  course  inflicted  only  if  the  case  were  brought  before  a 
judge.  A  husband  might,  in  secret  instances,  adopt  the  line  of 
action  proposed  by  Joseph,  "the  just  man/'  and  put  away  his 
wife  privately. 

35.   CIRCUMCISION 

1.  Institution.  Circumcision  is  mentioned  as  early  as  Genesis 
xvii.,  where  we  read  that  God  Himself  imposed  it  upon  Abraham 
and  his  descendants;  it  was  to  be  a  mark  of  participation  in 
the  covenant  that  God  made  with  him.  The  obligation  of  cir- 
cumcision was  binding  not  only  upon  all  male  descendants  of 
Abraham,  but  also  upon  their  slaves.  Every  male  child  had 
to  be  circumcised  on  the  eighth  day  after  birth,  and  every  uncir- 
cumcised  person  was  ordered  to  be  exterminated  from  among 
God's  people,  because  he  was  regarded  as  unclean.  In  the  Mosaic 
Law  this  rule  is  referred  to  as  if  it  had  long  existed,  not  as 
if  it  were  then  laid  down  for  the  first  time :  "  On  the  eighth  day 
the  infant  shall  be  circumcised  "  (Lev.  xii.  3). 

Circumcision  was  a  painful  operation,  consisting  in  the  re- 
moval of  the  foreskin  by  means  of  a  sharp  knife.  Originally 
stone  knives  were  used  for  the  purpose  (Ex.  iv.  25;  John  v.  2), 
but  later  on  iron  ones.  As  a  rule  this  ceremony  of  purification 
was  performed  by  the  head  of  the  household. 

Precise  instructions  as  to  the  manner  of  fulfilling  the  divine 
command  are  not  given  in  the  law.  Some  details  have,  how- 
ever, come  down  to  us  by  tradition,  which  was  always  an  adjunct 
to  the  written  law.  The  most  important  are  as  follows : 

1.  Any  one  can  circumcise,  but  it  is  only  to  be  done  by  women  if  no 
man  is  present. 

2.  A  Gentile  is  not  permitted  to  circumcise  a  descendant  of  Abraham, 
and  such  circumcision  by  a  Gentile  is  invalid. 

3.  If  an  already  circumcised  Gentile  embraces  Judaism,  a  wound  is 
made  at  the  place  of  circumcision  in  order  to  bring  out  the  blood  of  the 
Covenant. 

4.  A  sick  child  or  a  Proselyte  is  not  circumcised  until  he  has  recovered 
his  health.    If  a  child  dies  before  he  is  eight  days  old,  circumcision  is  still 
performed  on  the  dead  body. 

5.  Circumcision  is  permissible  even  on  the  Sabbath  (John  vii.  23). 
The  later  Israelites  generally  performed  circumcision  in  the  synagogue, 

and  united  the  naming  of  the  child  with  it.     The  latter  custom  is  men- 


128    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

tioned  in  the  New  Testament,  but  neither  it  nor  the  various  blessings  and 
rejoicings  of  modern  Jews  are  to  be  traced  back  to  Moses  or  Abraham,  or 
even  to  God  Himself;  they  have  developed  in  course  of  time.  The  same 
remark  applies  to  the  choice  of  a  godfather,  on  whose  knee  the  ceremony 
is  performed.  This  practice  seems  to  have  arisen  in  the  Middle  Ages  and 
in  imitation  of  the  custom  at  Christian  baptism. 

2.  Origin  of  Circumcision.  We  find  circumcision  not  only 
among  the  Israelites,  but  also  among  other  nations,  especially 
many  Arab  tribes,1  and  the  Phoenicians,  Egyptians  and  Ethio- 
pians. It  is  quite  possible  that  the  Gentiles  adopted  circumcision 
from  Abraham  and  his  descendants,  but  it  is  maintained,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  Egyptians  practiced  it  before  the  time  of 
Abraham,  who  adopted  it  in  Egypt  and  thence  brought  it  with 
him  to  Asia.  This  latter  theory  is  supported  by  Herodotus 
(ii.  104), 2  who  states  that  the  "  Syrians  in  Palestine  "  had  learnt 
from  the  Egyptians  to  practice  circumcision.  But  we  can  scarcely 
attach  much  importance  to  this  statement,  as  Herodotus  is  only 
reporting  what  he  was  told  by  the  Egyptian  priests,  and  their 
national  vanity  often  led  them  to  represent  themselves  as  the 
teachers  of  other  nations.3  If  it  is  suggested  that  the  Israelites 
were  too  isolated  and  politically  too  insignificant  for  the  Egyp- 
tians to  have  adopted  circumcision  from  them,  it  is  enough  to 
refer  to  the  honors  that  fell  to  Abraham  and  still  more  to  Joseph 
in  Egypt,  to  make  it  appear  credible.*  But  even  if  we  assume  or 

1  To  the  present  day  the  Mahometans  insist  most  strictly  upon  it.    It 
is  performed  between  the  seventh  and  the  thirteenth  years.     Cf.  Genesis 
xvii.  15:    "  Ismael  was  thirteen  years  old  when  he  was  circumcised." 

2  jj-ovvoi  irdvTuv  avdp&irwv  K6\xoi  Kal  AlyfaTioi  ical  AWlo-jres  TrepiT&fjLvovrai  an' 
apxijs  ra  aldoia.     3>oivuc€S  d£  Kal  *£vpoi  oi  tv  TTJ  IlaXcutmj'jj  Kal  afoot  6/j,o\oy£ovffi 
Trap  AlyvTrrluv  fj^efji.ad'rjK^ai. 

8  Reitzenstein  expresses  the  opinion  that  in  Egypt  only  the  priests  and 
other  persons  connected  with  the  temples  were  circumcised,  and  that  the 
Israelites  derived  the  practice  from  them.  If  this  were  true,  however,  cir- 
cumcision would  certainly  have  been  limited  to  the  priests  among  the 
Israelites  also.  It  seems  certain  that  in  Egypt  and  Arabia  from  remote 
times  the  operation  was  performed  at  about  the  age  of  thirteen. 

4  It  is  very  improbable  that  other  nations  practiced  circumcision  be- 
fore the  Jews.  In  the  Old  Testament  circumcision  is  spoken  of  as  the 
mark  distinguishing  the  servants  of  the  true  God  from  the  worshipers  of 
false  gods.  In  Ezechiel  xxxii.  21,  etc.,  all  non-Israelites,  including  a  great 
number  of  tribes,  are  spoken"  of  as  uncircumcised.  Scholz  believes  that  the 
Egyptians  adopted  circumcision  either  directly  from  Joseph,  who  was  ad- 


SACRED   EITUAL  129 

grant  that  circumcision  was  commonly  practiced  by  the  Egyptians 
before  the  time  of  Abraham,  this  does  not  affect  the  religious 
importance  of  the  ceremony.  If  Abraham  learnt  it  in  Egypt, 
he  was  being  prepared  to  be  commanded  by  God,  at  a  later 
period,  to  introduce  it  into  his  own  race. 

Why  did  God  order  the  people  of  the  Covenant  to  be  circum- 
cised? What  is  the  religious  signification  of  the  rite?  Was 
it  meant  merely  as  a  sanitary  precaution?  Philo  laid  stress  on 
this  aspect  of  it,  and  Christian  archasologists  have  tried  to 
strengthen  this  theory  by  pointing  out  how  much  it  furthers 
cleanliness,  which  is  beneficial  to  the  health  and  diminishes 
sexual  excesses.  But  other  nations  living  under  the  same  climatic 
conditions,  and  not  practicing  circumcision,  were  neither  less 
healthy  nor  less  moral  than  the  circumcised  for  that  reason. 
Circumcision  seems  to  have  been  ordered  because  the  sexual 
life  had  been  corrupted  by  sin.  If  the  human  race  was  to  be 
raised,  a  purification  of  this  life  was  absolutely  necessary.  Cir- 
cumcision was  only  a  symbol  and  type  of  such  a  purification. 
The  true  remedy  for  the  evils  that  had  crept  in  was  supplied 
by  Christ,  who  restored  monogamy,  raised  marriage  to  the  rank 
of  a  Sacrament,  and  gave  His  followers  the  counsel  of  perfect 
chastity,  at  the  same  time  making  it  possible  to  practice  it  by 
means  of  the  grace  that  He  bestowed.  Since  then  circum- 
cision has  ceased  to  be  obligatory.  It  was  a  type  of  baptism, 
but  could  not  remove  original  sin. 

mitted  to  their  priestly  caste,  or  indirectly,  through  Arab  tribes.  Egypt 
was  not  always  completely  cut  off  from  intercourse  with  foreign  coun- 
tries, as  is  shown  by  the  reign  of  Hyksos.  If  traces  of  circumcision  can 
really  be  found  on  very  ancient  mummies,  the  first  question  to  decide  is 
to  what  period  they  belong.  Among  the  carvings  at  Karnak  the  actual 
operation  of  circumcision  is  depicted,  but  it  should  be  noticed  that  it  is 
being  performed  on  two  boys  of  about  twelve  years  of  age,  which  is  the 
age  at  which  circumcision  takes  place  among  the  Arabs,  whereas  the 
Israelites  circumcise  children  of  eight  days  old;  hence  neither  the  Egyp- 
tians nor  the  Arabs  seem  to  have  been  their  instructors  in  this  respect. 
It  is  possible  that  the  Egyptians  adopted  circumcision  from  the  descend- 
ants of  Ismael.  Cf.  Genesis  xxi.  21:  "This  mother"  (Agar,  the  Egyp- 
tian) "took  a  wife  for  him  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt." 


130    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


36.   RECEPTION  OF  PROSELYTES 

In  every  age,  but  especially  after  the  Captivity,  strangers, 
members  of  other  races,  have  lived  among  the  Israelites.  They 
were  called  gerim  =  those  added.  Although  every  Gentile  was 
regarded  by  the  Israelites  as  unclean,  these  strangers  were 
tolerated  by  the  Mosaic  law,  but  they  had  to  pledge  themselves 
to  conform  to  some  extent  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition,  they  were  especially  bound  to  observe  the 
seven  Noachic  commandments ;  i.  e.  they  must  refrain  from 
(1)  blaspheming  the  true  God;  (2)  worshiping  the  heavenly 
bodies  and  false  gods;  (3)  murder;  (4)  incest,  i.e.  marriage 
with  very  near  relatives;  (5)  robbery;  (6)  rebellion  against 
authority;  (7)  eating  blood  and  flesh  containing  blood.1 

If  these  strangers  desired  to  attain  to  the  full  rights  of  Israel, 
they  had  to  seek  admission  to  the  Mosaic  Covenant  by  submitting 
to  circumcision,  and  thereby  pledge  themselves  to  observe  the 
whole  Jewish  law. 

At  the  time  of  Christ  (according  to  the  Mishna  and  Gemara), 
the  Proselytes  of  the  Gate  were  distinguished  from  the  Prose- 
lytes of  Righteousness  or  of  the  Covenant.  The  former  lived 
indeed  within  the  gates  of  Jewish  towns,  but  were  only  tolerated, 
the  latter  had  acquired  civil  rights,  observed  all  the  precepts  of 
the  law,  and  were  completely  on  a  level  with  the  Israelites.  The 
Babylonian  Gemara  tells  us  that  sacrifice  and  baptism  were  re- 
quired in  their  case,  as  well  as  circumcision.2  This  baptism 
is  nowhere  mentioned  in  Holy  Scripture  and  seems  to  be  a 
further  development  of  the  bath  that  preceded  the  performance 
of  religious  ceremonies.  The  whole  ceremony  expresses  a  desire 
for  purification  from  sin  and  to  be  born  again  to  a  new  life. 

1  These  rules  of  late  Jewish  origin  plainly  received  their  name  Noachic 
from  the  instructions  given  by  God  to  Noe  ( Gen.  ix.  3,  etc. ) ,  relating  to 
the  killing  of  beasts  and  the  eating  of  blood.    That  these  particular  rules 
have  come  down  from  Noe  cannot  be  proved. 

2  The  baptism  was  complete  immersion  in  running  water  in  token  of 
their  new  birth. 


SACKED   RITUAL  131 


37.   LAWS  CONCERNING  FOOD 

The  nourishment  of  which  a  man  partakes  is  not  a  matter  of 
perfect  indifference,  because  it  influences  also  his  spiritual  life. 
Hence  God  in  His  revelation  repeatedly  laid  down  rules  governing 
food. 

According  to  God's  original  ordinance,  the  human  race  was  to 
live  on  vegetables.  In  Genesis  i.  29,1  grass  is  assigned  to  the 
beasts,  and  to  man  the  produce  of  the  fields  and  the  fruits  of  the 
trees  as  food.  Most  commentators  are  of  opinion  that  in  the 
first  few  centuries  there  were  no  beasts  of  prey,  and  human 
beings  ate  no  animal  food.2  Only  after  the  Deluge  were  men 
permitted  to  eat  flesh  as  well  as  vegetables,  and  consequently 
to  kill  animals,  although  it  was  with  the  limitation  that  no 
blood,  or  flesh  stained  with  blood,  should  be  eaten  (Gen.  ix. 
3,  etc.). 

The  Mosaic  law  contains  many  other  limitations,  and  a  num- 
ber of  rules  regarding  the  kinds  of  flesh  food  that  were  per- 
mitted, and  those  that  were  not. 

The  flesh  of  all  unclean  beasts  was  forbidden  to  be  eaten. 
Such  included  (Lev.  xi. ;  Deut.  xiv.)  : 

1.  Of  four-footed  beasts,  (a)  all  that  walk  on  paws,  such  as 
dogs,  wolves,  foxes  and  lions;  (&)  all  that  do  not  chew  the  cud, 
as  swine;  (c)  all  that,  though  they  chew  the  cud,  have  hoofs  not 
quite  divided.    In  this  way  only  those  quadrupeds  are  reckoned 
as  clean  which  both  have  divided  hoofs  and  chew  the  cud.    These 
are  oxen,  sheep,  goats,  and  animals  resembling  them,  such  as 
gazelles,  wild  goats,  stags  and  fallow  deer. 

2.  Of  birds  about  twenty  varieties  are  declared  to  be  unclean, 
mostly  birds  of  prey   (Lev.  xi.  13,  etc.     Cf.  p.  12).     On  the 
other  hand,  pigeons,  turtledoves  and  quails  are  mentioned  as 
clean. 

3.  All  water  animals  are  unclean  unless  they  have  fins  and 

1  The  Vulgate  text  is  not  so  clear  in  this  verse  as  the  original,  with 
which  the  Septuagint,  Peshitto  and  other  ancient  texts  are  in  agreement. 

2  A  reminiscence  of  this  peaceful  age  has  been  preserved  in  the  writ- 
ings of  heathen  nations.     Cf.  Virgil,  Georg.,  I,  130;    Ovid,  Metamorph., 
XV,  96,  etc. 


132    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OP  THE  BIBLE 

scales.     So   eels,   all   creatures   resembling   snakes,   and   sala- 
manders, are  unclean. 

4.  All  creeping  beasts  are  considered  unclean ;  and 

5.  All  insects,  except  such  as  walk  on  four  feet  and  have  two 
others  with  which  to  hop.    This  exception  permitted  some  kinds 
of  grasshoppers  to  be  eaten  (Lev.  xi.  21). 

But  it  was  not  allowed  to  eat  even  clean  beasts  indiscriminately. 
With  reference  to  them  it  was  forbidden  — 

1.  To  eat  the  blood  and  portions  of  flesh  containing  blood 
(Lev.  vii.  26).1    This  prohibition  was  upheld  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment (Acts  xv.),  but  since  the  Middle  Ages  it  has  been  gradu- 
ally disregarded  by  the  Church,  as  the  Apostles  respected  it  only 
out  of  consideration  for  the  Jews,  intending  thus  to  facilitate 
their  entrance  into  the  Church. 

2.  It  was  forbidden  to  eat  the  flesh  of  any  beast,  that  had 
died  a  natural  death  or  that  had  been  killed  by  some  wild  animal. 
In  the  New  Testament  (Acts  xv.)  it  is  stated  in  a  still  more 
general  way  that  the  flesh  of  all  strangled  beasts    (TTVIKTVO) 
(e.  g.  killed  through  being  caught  in  a  snare)   is  forbidden. 
The  reason  in  both  cases  is  that  the  blood  would  have  been  either 
only  partially  or  not  at  all  drained  out  of  the  body,  whereas  when 
an  animal  was  slaughtered,  it  was  all  removed. 

3.  Certain  fatty  parts  of  oxen,  sheep  and  goats  might  not  be 
eaten,  because  they  were  destined  for  the  altar  of  sacrifice,  i.  e. 
they  were  considered  sacred,  even  apart  from  a  sacrifice  (Lev. 
iii.  16,  17). 2    Cf.  p.  111. 

4.  A  kid  might  not  be  boiled  in  its  mother's  milk   (Exod. 
xxiii.  19).     Tradition  extended  this  prohibition  to  every  form 
of  mixture  of  flesh  and  milk.3 

1  The  blood  is  the  life.    Man  cannot  bestow  life;    therefore  originally 
he  was  not  permitted  to  kill  animals,  although  this  was  allowed  after  the 
Deluge.     By  pouring  out  the  blood  man  aimed  at  giving  back  the  crea- 
ture's life  to  God,  without  necessarily  always  offering  a  sacrifice. 

2  "  All  the  fat  shall  be  the  Lord's.    By  a  perpetual  law  for  your  genera- 
tions, and  in  all  your  habitations :    neither  blood  nor  fat  shall  you  eat  at 
all."    Streaks  of  fat  in  the  meat,  however,  might  be  eaten. 

8  The  reason  for  this  precept  is  obscure.  Luther  and  others  have 
thought  that  it  was  forbidden  to  eat  any  sucklings.  Others  fancy  that 
the  custom  was  regarded  as  cruel.  Possibly  some  heathen  superstition 
gave  rise  to  this  prohibition. 


.     SACKED   KITUAL  133 

5.  It  was  also  forbidden  to  eat  the  flesh  of  any  beast  sacri- 
ficed to  a  heathen  god  (Exod.  xxxiv.  15).  In  order  not  to 
violate  this  precept,,  the  later  Israelites  refrained  from  all  Go  jinn 
meat.  They  have,  therefore,  their  own  butchers.1 

• 

38.    FASTING 

In  every  age,  and  probably  among  all  nations,  men  have  striven 
by  means  of  self-restraint  to  recover  that  union  with  God  which 
was  originally  forfeited  by  intemperance. 

Fasting  was  especially  practiced  by  the  Israelites,  when  great 
misfortunes  had  occurred  or  were  feared.  In  the  Book  of  Judges 
it  is  mentioned  frequently  (iii.  9,  15;  iv.  3)  that  "the  people 
cried  unto  the  Lord,"  when  they  were  being  oppressed  by  the 
Gentiles.2  General  fasts  were  often  ordered  by  the  High  Coun- 
cil in  later  times. 

In  the  Law  itself  a  general  fast  is  ordered  to  be  kept  by 
the  whole  people  on  the  10th  of  Tischri  in  each  year,  i.  e.  on 
the  Day  of  Atonement.  This  fast  was  called  <e  affliction  of  soul  " 
(innah  nephesch  or  taanith).  In  course  of  time  other  fast  days 
were  observed,  especially  the  days  on  which  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  and  that  of  the  Temple  were  commemorated.  The 
Jews  still  keep  these  days  as  fasts. 

At  the  time  of  our  Lord  pious  Jews  were  in  the  habit  of 
fasting  twice  in  the  week  (Luke  xviii.  12),  on  Monday  and 
Thursday;  and  in  every  age  individuals  have  imposed  a  fast 
upon  themselves  for  particular  reasons;  e.  g.  Sara  (Tob.  iii.  10)  ; 
Judith  (iv.  8);  Esther  (iv.  16).  This  custom  also  prevails 
still  among  the  Jews. 

The  fasts  were  severe.  From  sunset  to  sunset  no  food  or 
drink  was  taken,  nor  were  baths  and  anointing  allowed. 

Special  marks  of  mourning  during  a  fast  were  wearing  a  tight, 
sack-like  garment,  sprinkling  the  head  with  ashes  and  rending 
the  garments.  Certain  penitential  prayers  generally  accom- 
panied fasting  (Joel  ii.  12;  Judith  iv.  8). 

1  As  such  meat  occasionally  came  into  the  market,  it  is  mentioned  by 
Saint  Paul,  I  Corinthians  viii.-x.  He  allowed  the  Christians  to  use  it, 
but  adds  that  if  any  one  is  scandalized,  they  must  refrain  from  doing  so. 

a  Cf.  Isaias  Iviii.  5;    Joel  i.  14,  ii.  12. 


134    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


39.   PRAYER 

The  house  of  God  (Tabernacle  and  Temple)  was  regarded  as 
the  house  of  prayer  (Is.  Ivi.  7;  Matt.  xxi.  13;  Luke  xix.  46). 
Even  those  far  away  from  the  sanctuary  were  in  the  habit  of 
turning  towards  it  when  they  prayed  (III  Kings  viii.  44;  Dan. 
vi.  10).  For  many  religious  ceremonies  prayers  were  prescribed 
by  the  law,  especially  when  first  fruits  and  tithes  were  offered 
(Deut.  xxvi.  10,  13) ;  and  prayers  were  always  recited  at  sacri- 
fices (see  p.  107;  cf.  Lev.  xvi.  21)*  But  from  the  earliest 
times  prayers  were  said  privately.  Abraham's  servant  Eliezer 
prayed  earnestly  for  the  success  of  his  mission  (Gen.  xxiv.  12). 
Anna,  the  mother  of  Samuel,  prayed  silently  in  the  sanctuary, 
begging  God  to  hear  her  request  (I  Kings  i.  11).  At  the  time  of 
the  Captivity  it  was  the  custom  for  pious  Israelites  to  pray  thrice 
daily,  morning,  noon  and  night  (Dan.  vi.  10),  and  the  same 
practice  is  mentioned  in  Psalms  liv.  18.  The  spirit  of  prayer 
possessed  by  faithful  Israelites  reveals  itself  particularly  in  the 
Psalms,  which  have  been  adopted  by  the  Church  of  the  New 
Covenant,  and  serve  as  forms  of  prayer  in  daily  use.  However, 
prayer  often  became  mere  lip  service,  reprobated  both  by  the 
prophets  and  by  our  Saviour.  As  to  the  attitude  of  the  body 
during  prayer,  it  was  usual  to  pray  standing,  but  sometimes 
the  Israelites  prayed  kneeling  or  with  the  face  bent  down  to  the 
ground.  Our  practice  of  folding,  or  stretching  out,  the  hands, 
as  prescribed  in  the  liturgy  of  the  Church,  undoubtedly  has 
come  down  to  us  from  the  Old  Covenant  through  the  apostles 
(III  Kings  viii.  54;  Dan.  vi.  10;  Luke  xxii.  41;  Acts  vii.  59; 
Tim.  ii.  8). 

40.   Music  AND  SINGING 

1.  Music  and  singing  date  from  the  most  remote  past.  As  early 
as  Genesis  iv.  mention  is  made  of  the  invention  of  musical  instru- 
ments by  Jubal,  and  of  his  father  Lamech  as  singing  a  battle 
song.  When  Jacob  returned  home  from  Mesopotamia  there  is 


Our  Lord  prayed  before  He  died  as  a  victim. 


SACRED   EITUAL  135 

further  mention  of  music,1  and  again  after  the  escape  of  the 
Israelites  from  Egypt.2 

David  was  the  chief  musician  among  the  Hebrews;  he 
played  the  harp  so  beautifully  that  he  was  able  to  banish 
Saul's  melancholy  by  means  of  it.  He  introduced  music  and 
singing  to  the  sanctuary;  4000  Levites,  with  Asaph.,  Heman 
and  Idithun  at  their  head,  had  to  supply  it  (I  Chron.  xxiii.  5; 
xxv.  1,  etc.).  Solomon  and  his  successors  maintained  the  music, 
but  gradually  the  interest  in  it  diminished,  and  Ezechias  and 
Josias  had  to  make  new  arrangements.  During  the  Captivity 
it  was  no  longer  a  joy  to  practice  sacred  music  (Ps.  cxxxvi.),3 
but  it  was  not  completely  forgotten,  for  among  those  who  re- 
turned home  were  200  singers  (Esdras  ii.  65).  Their  piety 
caused  David's  music  to  be  revived  (Esdras  iii.  10;  Nehem. 
xii.  27),  and  thenceforth,  as  long  as  the  Temple  existed,  it  was 
always  kept  up  with  joy. 

2.  The  chief  part  of  the  music  seems  always  to  have  been 
singing ;  instruments  served  only  to  support  it ;  i.  e.  to  supply 
a  prelude  and  an  accompaniment,  to  make  a  transition  from  one 
key  to  another,  and  to  fill  up  pauses  when  the  singers  rested. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  the  Hebrews  had  melodies,  strictly  so 
called.  It  might  be  assumed  that  the  singing  resembled  that 
somewhat  high-pitched  kind  of  recitative  that  is  still  heard  in 
the  synagogues  when  the  Scriptures  are  read.  This  monotonous 
declamation  could  hardly,  however,  be  called  singing.  The  head- 
ings of  the  Psalms,  too,  show  that  different  modes  of  singing 
were  in  use;  for  instance,  in  the  Masoretic  text  the  heading  of 
the  8th  Psalm  is  "  according  to  the  Gathitic  tune,"  and  that  of 

1  Laban  says  to  him :  "  I  might  have  brought  thce  on  the  way  with  joy, 
and  with  songs,  and  with  timbrels  and  with  harps  "  ( Gen.  xxxi.  27 ) . 

2  Exodus    xv.    1:     "Moses  .  .  .  sung    this    canticle    to    the    Lord." 
Verses  20,  21 :  "  Mary  the  prophetess,  the  sister  of  Aaron,  took  a  timbrel 
in  her  hand,  and  all  the  women  went  after  her  with  timbrels  and  with 
dances,  and  she  began  the  song." 

3  "  Upon  the  rivers  of  Babylon,  there  we  sat  and  wept,  when  we  remem- 
bered Sion.    On  the  willows  in  the  midst  thereof  we  hung  up  our  instru- 
ments.   For  there  they  that  led  us  into  captivity  required  of  us  the  words 
of  songs,  and  they  that  carried  us  away,  said :  *  Sing  ye  to  us  a  hymn  of 
the  songs  of  Sion/    How  shall  we  sing  the  song  of  the  Lord  in  a  strange 
land?" 


136    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

the  21st  Psalm  is  that  it  must  be  sung  to  "the  hind  of  the 
dawn,"  i.  e.  to  the  tune  of  a  well-known  song.  It  seems  probable, 
therefore,  that  the  songs  possessed  melody,  but  harmony  was 
absent,  i.  e.  the  union  of  high  and  deep  voices  singing  together. 
Musical  notation  was  unknown.1 

3.  The  musical  instruments  mentioned  in  the  Bible  may  be 
divided  into  stringed  and  wind  instruments  and  instruments  of 
percussion.2 

(a)  Stringed  Instruments.  Those  in  use  among  the  Israelites 
were  known  as  the  Jcinnor  and  the  neb  el.  The  Tcinnor  by  its 
very  name  suggests  a  harp,  lyre  or  guitar.  It  had  six  strings. 
The  nebel  was  like  the  kinnor,  but  larger,  with  10  or  12  strings. 
As  nebel  means  skin,  the  sounding-board  was  probably  uneven,  or 
twisted.  The  instruments  called  in  Daniel  iii.  5,  etc.,  the  sabbeJca 
(*O3p,  aanftvicr))  and  pesanter  (prups,  tya\Tiqpiov)  were  some- 
thing like  the  harp.  They  were  used  in  Babylon. 

(1))  Wind  Instruments:  the  bagpipe  or  ugab  (3-JW);  the 
flute,  chalil  (Vbn),  made  of  reed  or  wood;  the  trumpet, 
chazozera  (rmkri),  and  the  trombone,  schophar  (*)2ity);  ac- 
cording to  Josephus,  the  trumpet  was  a  straight,  thin  tube  of 
metal,  about  a  cubit  in  length,  with  a  bell-shaped  mouthpiece. 
It  is  represented  on  the  Arch  of  Titus.  The  trombone  or  horn 
(  P-R-)  was  probably  originally  an  ox  or  a  ram's  horn,  and  was 
afterwards  made  of  metal  in  the  same  shape. 

(c)  Percussion  Instruments:  the  tambourine  (pjh,  ru/ATravov), 
a  ring  of  wood  or  metal,  with  a  skin  stretched  over  it  and  bells 
attached  to  it ; 3  cymbals  ( D'1?^? ) 4  two  concave  pieces  of  metal, 
giving  a  clear  note  when  struck  together;  the  sistrum  (D\jnjnD)  5 
an  oval  ring  of  metal,  across  which  were  four  metal  rods  loosely 
attached  to  it;  the  instrument  had  a  handle,  by  which  it  was 

1  Dancing  often  accompanied  the  music,  even  at  religious  ceremonies. 
Even  King  David  danced  before  the  ark    (II  Kings  vi.   14).     The  two 
sexes  never  danced  together  except  at  the  sacrifices  to  false  gods. 

2  Bow  instruments  seem  not  to  have  been  known. 

8  It  was  held  in  the  left  hand  and  shaken  in  time,  whilst  the  right  hand 
struck  the  skin,  perhaps  with  a  little  stick. 

*  In  I  Esdras  iii.  10,  cymbals  are  called  D^SvW. 

5  Gk.  aelarpov,  Lat.  sistrum,  a  sort  of  gong,  used  in  Egypt  chiefly  in. 
honor  of  Isis. 


SACRED   B1TUAL  137 


shaken  and  swung;  the  triangle  (D^Stf),  made  of  steel,  and 
attached  to  a  string,  by  which  it  was  held;  it  was  struck  with 
a  little  metal  rod. 

41.   BLESSINGS 

Numbers  vi.  22,  etc.,  contains  the  prescribed  form  of  words 
used  in  blessing  the  people.    It  runs  : 

"  The  Lord  bless  thee  and  keep  thee. 

The  Lord  show  His  Face  to  thee  and  have  mercy  on  thee. 

The  Lord  turn  His  Countenance  to  thee  and  give  thee  peace." 
Every  day,  after  the  morning  sacrifice  and  the  offering  of  incense, 
the  officiating  priest  had  to  raise  his  hands  and  pronounce  this 
blessing  over  the  people  assembled  and  praying  in  the  court,  or 
over  their  representatives.    The  people  answered  :  "  Amen." 

The  evening  sacrifice  was  not  followed  by  a  blessing.1 


42.   Vows  AND  CURSES 

1.  In  Holy  Scripture  a  vow  (cherem)  is  the  dedication  of 
persons  or  things  to  be  exclusively  God's  property.  The  conse- 
quence of  it  was  that  the  persons  must  be  killed  and  the  things 
given  to  the  sanctuary  or  burnt  (Lev.  xxvii.  1,  etc.;  Num.  xxxi. 
17;  Deut  ii.  34,  xiii.  15). 

In  the  Mosaic  law  this  doom  was  pronounced  upon  Israelites 
who  sacrificed  to  false  gods,  and  even  upon  whole  cities  that  fell 
into  idolatry  (Ex.  xxii.  19).  Human  beings  and  animals  in  such 
towns  were  to  be  slain  by  the  sword,  houses  and  goods  to  be 
consumed  with  fire.  On  account  of  particularly  wicked  practices 
this  curse  was  pronounced  against  the  Chanaanites  and  subse- 
quently also  against  the  Amalekites,  who  were  probably  of  kindred 
race  with  the  Chanaanites,2  but  it  was  carried  out  in  all  its  se- 
verity only  in  the  case  of  one  city  —  Jericho.  Other  town  were 
treated  more  leniently,  and  were  allowed  to  remain  standing.  If 

1  So  Haneberg,  who  relies  on  Maimonides. 

2  Josephus   Flavins    (Antiq.,  II,  i.   2)    is  mistaken  in  believing  the 
Amalekites  to  be   the   descendants  of  Amalech,  the  grandson  of  Esau 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  12,  16).    They  are  mentioned  long  before  the  time  of  Esau 
(Gen.  xiv.  7).    Philo  reckons  them  among  the  Phoenicians. 


138    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

any  one  retained  for  himself  any  part  of  what  was  cursed,  he 
himself  incurred  the  curse,  and  was  put  to  death.1 

A  temporary  vow  differed  from  the  curse.  Under  certain  cir- 
cumstances it  could  be  removed.  Not  infrequently  persons,  es- 
tates, animals  and  other  things,  were  consecrated  to  God  and  to 
the  sanctuary,  but  they  could  be  redeemed  by  payment  of  a 
ransom.  This  kind  of  vow  was  called  qorban  (cf.  Lev.  xxvii.  1, 
etc.;  Mark  vii.  11). 

2.  Altogether   different   from  the   vows   and  curses   of   the 
Mosaic   law   is   the  banishment   from   the   synagogues   of   the 
later  Jews.     It  implies  that  a  man  is  excluded  from  the  syna- 
gogue and  congregation  and  all  intimate  dealings  with  other 
Israelites  (John  ix.  22,  34).     This  sentence  was  generally  pro- 
nounced in  consequence  of  some  religious  offense,  especially  blas- 
phemy.   In  the  Mishna  and  by  the  Eabbis  this  excommunication 
is  called  Nidduj. 

3.  The  Jews  of  the  Christian  era  have  extended  this  excom- 
munication, and  they  now  distinguish  three  varieties  of  it,  viz. 
Cher  em  =  the  Mosaic  curse ;  Nidduj  =  simple  excommunication, 
generally  for  30  days ;  and  Nidduj  accompanied  ly  a  curse,  often 
also  called  Cherem,  a  solemnly  pronounced  curse  and  perpetual  ex- 
clusion from  the  congregation. 

1  The  extreme  severity  that  dominated  the  Old  Covenant  was  inevit- 
able if  the  worship  of  the  true  God  was  to  be  maintained.  It  was  only 
by  the  sternest  measures  that  the  idolatrous  worship,  everywhere  preva- 
lent, could  be  repressed  and  prevented  from  contaminating  God's  own 
little  nation  (cf.  Josue  vii.  21,  etc.). 


FOURTH    SECTION 

SACRED    SEASONS 
43.   THE  CALENDAR 

THE  Israelites  had  not  a  solar,  but  a  lunar  year  ;   i.  e.  the 
calendar  was  governed  by  the  moon. 

A  day  was  reckoned  not  from  midnight  to  midnight,  but  from 
sunset  to  sunset,  perhaps  because  it  is  only  after  the  sun  has  gone 
down  that  the  crescent  moon  shows  itself  in  the  sky.  (This 
division  of  time  has  been  adopted  by  the  Church,  as  festivals  and 
days  begin  with  first  vespers  and  end  with  second  vespers.)  The 
natural  day,  the  period  of  daylight,  was  divided  at  first  only 
into  morning,  noon  and  evening;  but  later  into  twelve  hours, 
which  were  longer  in  summer  than  in  winter.  The  night  was 
divided  into  three  (Judges  vii.  19),  and  afterwards  into  four 
watches,  called  evening,  midnight,  cock-crow  and  morning.1  The 
week,  a  quarter  of  a  lunar  month,  was  based  on  the  story  of  Crea- 
tion, as  God  created  the  world  in  six  days  and  rested  on  the 
seventh  day.  With  the  exception  of  the  seventh,  the  days  had  no 
particular  names,  they  were  called  simply  the  first,  second,  etc. 
The  seventh  was  the  Sabbath  =  rest. 

The  church  adopted  the  Jewish  week,  hence  the  names  feria  secunda, 
tertia,  etc.,  in  use  in  ecclesiastical  language.  The  Sabbath  has  retained 
its  old  name,  and  the  first  day  of  the  week  is  called  domiinical  as  being 
the  day  of  our  Lord's  resurrection.  Among  heathen  nations  the  days 
were  generally  named  after  the  heavenly  bodies.  This  custom  probably 
originated  in  Babylon,  where  astrology  was  practiced.  In  this  respect 
the  Israelites  took  nothing  from  the  Babylonians. 

The  month  (=moon)  corresponds  with  the  duration  of  the 
moon's  circuit  round  the  earth.  It  lasted  29  or  30  days.2  Ac- 


1  6\f/e,  neavvKTLov,  dXeKTopoQcavta,  irpui  (Mark  vi.  48;    xiii.  35). 

2  Astronomically  a  lunar  month  consists  of  29  days,   12  hours,  44 
minutes  and  3  seconds.    For  want  of  astronomical  knowledge  it  was  im- 
possible to  determine  this  precisely,  and  people  had  to  reckon  from  the 
moment  when  the  new  moon  became  visible. 


140    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

cording  to  the  Talmud,  whoever  in  or  near  Jerusalem  caught 
sight  of  the  new  moon  was  bound  to  notify  the  fact  to  the  priests 
in  the  Temple,  who  then  declared  the  previous  month  with  its 
29  days  to  be  ended,  and  the  30th  day  to  be  the  first  of  the  new 
month.  If  the  sky  was  too  cloudy  for  the  new  moon  to  be  seen, 
the  month  was  ended  with  the  30th  day,  and  the  following  day 
was  regarded  as  that  of  the  New  Moon.  In  very  early  times 
no  special  names  were  given  to  the  months,  with  the  exception 
of  the  first,  which  was  called  Abib  (ear  of  corn),  but  during  the 
Captivity  the  Babylonian  names  came  into  use  and  are  still  re- 
tained by  the  Jews.  These  names,  the  meaning  of  which  is 
quite  obscure,  are  as  follows :  (1)  Nisan,  the  spring  month.  The 
Pasch  was  kept  on  the  14th  of  Nisan.  (2)  Ijjar.  (3)  Sivan; 
Pentecost  fell  on  the  6th  day  of  this  month.  (4)  Tammus. 
(5)  Ab.  (6)  EM.  (7)  Tishrij  on  the  1st  fell  the  civil  New 
Year's  festival,  on  the  10th  the  Day  of  Atonement,  on  the  15th 
the  Feast  of  Tabernacles.  (8)  Marcheshwan.  (9)  Kislev;  the 
Feast  of  the  Dedication  of  the  Temple,  that  occurred  in  winter, 
was  celebrated  on  the  25th  (John  x.  22).  (10)  Tebeth.  (11) 
Shebat.  (12)  Adar.  Sometimes  there  was  a  thirteenth  inter- 
calary month,  called  Veadar. 

As  the  Pasch  had  always  to  be  celebrated  at  the  beginning  of 
harvest  (about  April  1st),  and  Pentecost  at  the  end  of  it,  the 
lunar  year  of  364  days  had  to  be  reconciled  with  the  solar  year 
of  365  days,  as  otherwise  the  festivals  would  have  been  celebrated 
at  the  wrong  seasons.  For  this  reason  about  every  three  years  an 
intercalary  month  was  inserted.  The  beginning  of  the  year  was 
probably  reckoned  thus:  Towards  the  end  of  the  12th  month 
Adar,  the  cornfields  were  surveyed  to  see  if  the  barley  would  be 
ripe  by  the  middle  of  the  following  month,  so  that  the  harvest 
could  be  begun  with  the  ceremony  of  offering  the  first  sheaf  at 
the  Pasch.  If  the  corn  seemed  likely  to  be  ripe,  the  new  year 
began  with  the  next  month,  but  if  not,  the  old  year  was  lengthened 
by  the  month  Veadar.  After  the  Captivity,  the  decision  whether 
the  month  should  be  inserted  or  not  rested  with  the  Synedrium, 
and  the  rule  was  observed  that  in  the  Sabbatical  year  there  should 
never  be  13  months. 

The  new  year  was  originally  reckoned  as  beginning  in  the 


SACRED    SEASONS  141 

spring,  but  after  the  Captivity  it  became  the  custom  to  begin 
the  civil  year  with  the  first  day  of  Tishri,  in  the  autumn,  whilst 
the  religious  year  always  began  with  the  first  day  of  Nisan,  in 
the  spring.  For  an  agricultural  people  the  beginning  of  seed- 
time seems  the  most  appropriate  date  for  the  beginning  of  the 
year.1 

44.   DAILY  WORSHIP  IN  THE  TEMPLE 

Every  morning  and  evening  a  lamb  a  year  old  was  sacrificed 
as  a  burnt  offering  in  the  name  of  the  whole  people  (Ex.  xxix.  38 ; 
Num.  xxviii.  3).  It  was  accompanied  by  an  unbloody  sacrifice 
of  one-tenth  epJia  of  wheat  flour  (rather  less  than  two  quarts), 
sprinkled  with  oil,  and  one-fourth  liin  (about  a  pint)  of  wine. 
Besides  this,  fragrant  incense  was  laid  on  the  altar  in  the  Holy 
Place  every  day,  in  the  morning  and  evening;  and  in  the  morn- 
ing, after  offering  the  incense,  the  officiating  priest  had  to  pro- 
nounce Aaron's  blessing  (see  p.  137)  over  the- people  in  the  Court. 
According  to  tradition,  at  least  the  twelve  so-called  Officers  of 
the  Temple  must  be  present  at  this  ceremony,  to  lay  their  hands 
upon  the  victim  in  the  name  of  the  people,  and  to  receive  the 
blessing. 

Private  sacrifices  as  a  rule  followed  the  usual  morning  offering. 

From  the  time  of  David  onwards  the  daily  services  were  made 
more  solemn  by  the  Levites,  who  provided  music  and  psalmody. 


45.    THE  SABBATH2 

1.  Origin.  Keeping  the  Sabbath  day  was  not  peculiar  to  tlie 
Israelites;  we  find  at  least  traces  of  it  among  heathen  nations. 
The  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  distinguished  the  7th,  14th,  21st 

1  The  Jewish  era,  reckoning  from  the  creation  of  man,  only  came  into 
general  use  about  the  fifteenth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  The  Jews 
say  that  1656  years  elapsed  between  the  creation  and  the  Deluge,  and 
3828  years  between  the  creation  and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Romans.  According  to  them,  the  birth  of  Christ  took  place  in  the  year 
3760. 

3  r\3tf  is  an  emphatic  form  of  ra^,  to  rest.  It  designates  a  particular 
kind  of  quiet  and  rest. 


142    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

and  28th  days  from  the  other  days  of  the  month.1  A  week  as 
a  period  of  seven  days  occurs  among  the  Hindoos  and  Chinese 
and  also  among  the  people  of  Peru.  Like  the  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians,  the  Germanic  nations  dedicated  the  days  of  the  week 
to  various  deities,  and  these  names  have  remained,  at  least  par- 
tially, to  the  present  time.  The  name  sabattu  or  sapattu,  which 
suggests  Shabbat,  occurs  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions.  Among 
the  Greeks  and  Eomans  all  remembrance  of  the  observance  of  a 
day  of  rest  seems  to  have  died  out,  and  they  often  ridiculed  the 
Jews  as  idlers.2  The  institution  of  the  Sabbath  did  not,  there- 
fore, originate  in  the  Mosaic  Law,  as  many  people  assume,  but 
is  to  be  referred  to  the  history  of  creation.  The  hallowing  of  the 
seventh  day  was  therefore  no  new  thing  imposed  upon  the  Israel- 
ites on  Sinai,  but  it  had  been  almost  forgotten,  and  consequently 
they  are  ordered  to  "  Eemember  to  keep  holy  the  Sabbath  day  " 
(Ex.  xx.  8.  Cf.  Ex.  xii.  16,  xvi.  22,  etc.). 

2.  Duration.     The  whole  nation  was  required  to  rest  from 
sunset  of  the  sixth  day  to  sunset  of  the  seventh.    According  to 
tradition,  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  Sabbath  were  made 
known  by  trumpet-blasts  in  every  town  in  the  country. 

3.  Mode  of  Observance.     The  observance  of  the  seventh  day 
had  both  a  negative  and  a  positive  side ;  the  former  consisted  in 
refraining  from  work,  the  latter  in  particular  devotion  to  God 
and  His  law. 

(a)  Negative  Side.  The  law  does  not  contain  precise  instruc- 
tions regarding  the  kinds  of  work  forbidden,  but  the  general 
sense  of  the  ordinance  is  quite  clear  from  certain  passages.  In 
Exodus  xxxv.  3,  it  is  forbidden  to  light  a  fire  for  the  purpose 
of  cooking.3  In  Numbers  xv.  32,  we  read  that  picking  up  sticks 

1  We  must  not,  however,  overlook  the  fact  that  among  these  nations 
the  days  mentioned,  and  also  the  19th,  were  not  days  of  rest  and  joy  and 
remembrance  of  the  Creation,  but  days  of  penance  and  atonement.    Hence 
the  Sabbath  of  the  Pentateuch  can  certainly  not  have  been  derived  from 
Babylon   (see  p.  272). 

2  Juvenal,  Sat.,  XIV,  105;    Sen.  in  Aug.  de  civ.  Dei,  VI,  11. 

3  "  Six  days  you  shall  do  work :  the  seventh  day  shall  be  holy  unto  you, 
the  sabbath,  and  the  rest  of  the  Lord:    he  that  shall  do  any  work  on  it, 
shall  be  put  to  death.    You  shall  kindle  no  fire  in  any  of  your  habitations 
on  the  sabbath  day."    Food  for  the  sabbath  was  cooked  on  the  preceding 
day.    Also  the  lights  were  kindled  before  sunset  on  Friday  evening. 


SACEED    SEASONS  143 

on  the  Sabbath  was  severely  punished.1  It  seems,  therefore,  that 
every  kind  of  bodily  work,  even  the  most  trivial,  must  cease. 
Therefore  the  Jews  believed  all  traveling  and  trading  on  the 
Sabbath  to  be  prohibited.2  How  rigorously  the  Pharisees  observed 
the  day  of  rest  is  seen  in  the  New  Testament.  The  Mishna,  which 
contains  a  special  treatise  on  Sabbath  observances,  names  thirty- 
nine  chief  kinds  of  work  (dboth  melakoth  =  patres  operum),  each 
with  many  subsidiary  occupations  (toledoth  =  generationes), 
which  were  all  prohibited  on  the  Sabbath.3 

(6)  Positive  Side.  The  Law  contains  no  definite  regulations 
for  the  positive  observance  of  the  Sabbath.  In  general,  the 
Israelites  regarded  it  as  a  duty  to  employ  themselves  reverently 
with  God  and  His  law.  The  daily  sacrifice  in  the  Temple  was 
doubled  *  and  fresh  loaves  of  proposition  (shewbread)  were  pro- 
vided. Prayers  were  held  in  the  synagogues,  and  passages  of 
the  law  and  the  prophets  were  read  aloud  and  expounded.  The 
Sabbath  was  regarded  as  a  day  of  rejoicing  (Is.  Iviii.  13;  Judith 
viii.  6;  Luke  xiv.  1).  Cheerful  meals  were  held  in  the  houses, 
as  far  as  this  was  possible  without  cooking  on  the  day  itself,  and 
people  wore  their  best  garments. 

1  The  offender  had  to  be  put  to  death.    It  seems  likely,  however,  that 
he  did  not  merely  collect  wood,  but,  in  order  to  obtain  it,  either  cut 
down  a  tree  or  exerted  himself  to  break  down  bushes.     This  at  least  is 
the  interpretation  of  the  Samaritan  Targum. 

2  All  that  the  law  enacts  with  regard  to  walking  is  that  every  man 
is  to  stay  at  home  and  not  go  forth  out  of  his  place  (Ex.  xvi.  29).    The 
doctors  of  the  law  fixed  two  thousand  cubits,  about  a  quarter  of  an 
hour's  walk,  as  the  farthest  point  to  which  a  man  might  go.     In  Acts  i. 
12  the  distance  of  the  Mount  of  Olives  from  Jerusalem  is  defined  as  a 
Sabbath  day's  journey.    Even  at  the  present  day  the  Sabbath  day's  jour- 
ney is  marked  out  in  Jewish  communities  by  means  of  a  string  or  wire. 
The   Jews   refused  also   to  bear  arms   on  the   Sabbath,   often  to   their 
own  great  disadvantage.     But  in  later  times  they  were  less  strict,  and 
sometimes  they  availed  themselves  of  the  law  regarding  the  Sabbath  to 
practice  some  stratagem  of  war. 

3  To  carry  the  smallest  burden,  even  a  piece  of  broken  crockery,  or  a 
needle  or  a  false  tooth,  was  enough  to  violate  the  commandment. 

4  Numbers  xxviii.  9.    "  On  the  sabbath  day  you  shall  offer  two  lambs 
of  a  year  old  without  blemish,  and  two  tenths  of  flour." 


144    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


46.   THE  NEW  MOONS 

The  Israelites  kept  each  new  moon  as  a  religious  festival, 
As  the  date  could  not  be  precisely  fixed  by  means  of  astronomy, 
it  was  necessary  to  choose  the  day  after  the  first  appearance  of 
the  new  moon;  on  the  day  when  the  moon  changes,  it  cannot 
be  seen,  owing  to  the  proximity  of  the  sun.  In  the  Temple  this 
day  was  celebrated  by  special  sacrifices  of  several  animals  with 
the  corresponding  meat  and  drink  offerings,  in  addition  to  the 
usual  sacrifices  (Num.  xxviii.  11,  etc.).  To  increase  the  so- 
lemnity, trumpets  were  blown  (Num.  x.  10).  The  day  was 
observed  as  a  Sabbath,  although  this  was  not  absolutely  pre- 
scribed, and  feasts  took  place.  The  new  moon  of  the  seventh 
month  (1st  of  Tishri)  received  particular  honor,  like  the  seventh 
day  of  the  week;  it  was  called  the  day  of  the  blowing  of  trum- 
pets; and  on  it  an  extra  sacrifice  was  offered,  over  and  above 
those  usually  offered  at  the  new  moons  (Num.  xx.  2,  etc.).  As 
after  the  Captivity  the  civil  year  began  with  the  seventh  new 
moon,  this  day  is  also  called  New  Year's  day. 

The  custom  of  honoring  the  new  moons  has  been  altogether  lost  under 
the  new  Covenant,  perhaps  because  the  Sun  of  Righteousness  has  arisen, 
and  so  the  faint  moonlight  of  the  Old  Covenant  is  bound  to  disappear. 
The  change  seems  to  rest  upon  instructions  given  by  the  Apostles.  Just 
like  the  observance  of  the  first  instead  of  the  last  day  of  the  week,  the 
abolition  of  the  New  Moon  ceremonies  marks  the  freedom  of  Christians 
from  the  Jewish  law.  Saint  Paul  writes  to  this  effect  in  Galatians  iv. 
10  and  Colossians  ii.  16,  etc. 

47.    THE  SABBATICAL  YEAK 
(Leviticus  xxv.) 

Men  and  beasts,  after  six  days  of  work,  had  to  dedicate  the 
seventh  day  to  God  and  spend  it  in  rest;  and  in  the  same  way, 
after  six  years  of  cultivation  and  fruit-bearing,  the  whole  country 
was  ordered  to  keep  a  year's  Sabbath  in  God's  honor,  and  to 
rest.  During  this  seventh  year  no  field  might  be  cultivated  or 
sown,  no  garden  and  no  fruit  tree  might  receive  attention.  What- 
ever grew  without  any  action  on  the  part  of  mankind,  was  com- 
mon property,  belonging  to  all  without  distinction. 


SACEED    SEASONS  145 

The  Sabbatical  year  always  began  in  the  autumn,  when  the 
usual  sowing  did  not  take  place. 

As  during  the  Sabbatical  year  no  profit  could  be  derived 
from  the  soil,  it  necessarily  followed  that  no  creditor  could 
forcibly  demand  payment  of  debts  during  it.  In  the  same  way 
no  taxes  could  be  claimed  by  the  government.  According  to 
Josephus  Flavius  (Ant.,  XIV,  x.  6),  even  the  pagan  rulers  of 
Palestine  always  remitted  their  taxes  to  the  Jews  in  the  Sab- 
batical year. 

On  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  in  this  year,  the  Mosaic  law 
(Deut.  xxxi.  10-14)  required  that  the  law  should  be  solemnly 
read  aloud  to  the  whole  people  by  the  Levites  in  the  sanctuary. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  (1)  that  as  soon  as  the  Sabbatical  year 
began,  every  debtor  was  absolutely  released  from  payment,  so  that  his 
creditor  had  thenceforth  no  claim  upon  him.  The  law  only  states  (Deut. 
xv.  2)  that  in  this  year  the  creditor  shall  not  raise  his  hand,  nor  oppress 
his  neighbor  therewith,  i.  e.  in  this  year  he  is  not  recklessly  to  claim  his 
due,  as  his  debtor  can  have  no  income.  (2)  Equally  mistaken  is  the 
supposition  that  Hebrew  slaves  always  obtained  their  freedom  in  the 
Sabbatical  year.  The  law  (Ex.  xxi.  2;  Deut.  xv.  12)  orders  their  emanci- 
pation to  take  place  in  the  seventh  year,  i.  e.  not  necessarily  in  the  Sab- 
batical year,  but  in  the  seventh  year  of  their  service.  Although  slavery 
existed  in  Israel  as  well  as  in  the  rest  of  the  ancient  world,  it  was  of  a 
far  milder  type  than  among  the  heathen  (cf.  also  the  following). 


48.    THE  YEAR  OF  JUBILEE 

After  seven  times  seven  years  there  followed  one  year  (no 
doubt  beginning  in  the  autumn)  of  particular  rejoicing.  This 
was  called  the  Jubilee,  schenath  ha  j  job  el,  because  on  the  10th 
of  the  month  Tishri,  i.  e.  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  of  the  seventh 
Sabbatical  year,  it  was  proclaimed  throughout  the  country  with 
the  sound  of  trumpets. 

1.  In  this  year  the  whole  land  rested,  as  in  the  Sabbatical 
year,  and  might  not  be  cultivated.    Thus  in  two  successive  years 
there  was  no  agriculture,  but  the  fertility  of  the  soil  was  so 
great  that  provision  could  be  made,  and  there  was  no  reason 
to  fear  a  famine.     The  rest  affected  only  agriculture;    cattle 
breeding  and  other  business  went  on  as  usual. 

2.  In  the  year  of  jubilee  all  persons,  who  for  any  reason  had 


146    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

been  reduced  to  slavery,  were  set  at  liberty,  if  one  of  their 
relatives  had  not  previously  purchased  their  freedom.  When  a 
man  was  set  free,  all  the  members  of  his  family  acquired  their 
freedom.1 

3.  All  landed  property  that  had  passed  into  the  possession  of 
strangers  reverted  in  the  year  of  jubilee  to  the  original  owner 
or  his  descendants,  without  payment.  This  contributed  greatly 
to  the  prevention  of  oppression  and  destitution  among  the 
people. 

Josephus  Flavius  (Ant.,  II,  xii.  3)  says  that  in  the  year  of  jubilee 
all  debts  were  canceled;  but  there  is  no  mention  of  this  in  Holy  Scrip- 
ture, and  no  stress  can  be  laid  upon  the  statement. 


THE   YEARLY    RECURRING    FESTIVALS 
49.    THE  PASCH 

I.  The  Pasch  (Ex.  xii.).2  The  first  and  most  important 
festival  in  the  year  was  always  the  Pasch,  celebrated  on  the  14th 
of  Nisan.  The  feast  itself  and  the  seven  days  following  it  com- 
memorated the  delivery  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt.  On  the 
10th  day  of  the  first  month  a  male  lamb,  free  from  blemish,  and 
one  year  old,  was  set  aside  for  each  family.  On  the  14th,  about 
sunset  (Deut.  xvi.  6),3  the  head  of  the  household  killed  it.  If 
any  family  was  too  small  to  eat  a  whole  lamb,  two  families  might 
unite  for  the  purpose.  A  bundle  of  hyssop  was  dipped  into  the 
blood  as  it  streamed  out,  and  some  was  smeared  on  the  two  door- 
posts and  on  the  lintel  of  the  house.  No  bone  of  the  animal  might 

1  This  applied  only  to  the  slaves  who  were  Israelites,  not  to  those  who 
were  Gentiles.    The  latter  could  be  bequeathed  by  a  man  to  his  descend- 
ants  (Lev.  xxv.  46).    The  law  disapproved  of  the  enslavement  of  people 
of  the  same  race  (Lev.  xxv.  42.    Cf.  John  viii.  33). 

2  KHD3  is  the  Aramaic  name;    the  Hebrew  is  HOf);    both  signify  pass- 
ing over,  sparing. 

3  Exodus  xii.  6,  "  between  the  two  evenings."     Various  explanations 
are  given  of  this  expression;    it  probably  means  that  the  killing  was  to 
take  place  just  at  sunset.     Before  the  sun  went  down,  the  evening  be- 
longed to  the  14th,  after  sunset,  to  the  15th  of  Nisan.    Each  evening  was 
divided  into  two  parts,  one  belonging  to  the  preceding,  and  the  other  to 
the  following  day.    The  modern  Samaritans  sacrifice  on  Mount  Garizim, 
as  soon  as  the  sun  has  set. 


SACRED    SEASONS  147 

be  broken,  nor  was  it  cut  up,  but,  after  the  skin  and  the  entrails 
had  been  removed,  it  was  roasted  whole  at  the  fire.  When  it 
was  cooked  through,  it  had  to  be  eaten  the  same  night,  with 
unleavened  bread  and  bitter  herbs.1  All  the  household  took 
part  in  the  meal;  only  the  uncircumcised  were  excluded.  As 
the  ceremony  commemorated  the  flight  from  Egypt,  all  present 
had  to  have  their  loins  girt,  shoes  on  their  feet,  and  a  staff  in 
their  hand.2  The  head  of  the  house  had  to  explain  why  the 
feast  was  held.  "What  could  not  be  consumed  must  be  burnt  on 
the  following  morning. 

When  settled  conditions  prevailed  in  Palestine  a  change  was 
made  in  the  ceremony,  and  all  full-grown  males  were  required 
to  attend  in  the  sanctuary.  The  Paschal  lambs  were  no  longer 
sacrificed  in  each  house,  but  were  killed  and  eaten  near  the 
Tabernacle  or  Temple.  Some  of  the  blood  was  sprinkled  on  the 
altar  and  the  fatty  parts  were  burnt.  Pilgrims  visiting  Jerusa- 
lem at  the  time  of  the  festival  received  the  necessary  accommo- 
dation gratis  from  the  inhabitants,  but  it  was  usual  to  present 
the  hosts  with  the  lambs'  skins.  As  the  number  of  strangers 
was  very  great,  many  spent  the  nights  in  the  open  air,  and  ate 
the  lamb  in  tents. 

Whoever  was  prevented  from  keeping  the  feast  on  the  14th 
of  Nisan,  by  reason  either  of  legal  uncleanness  or  some  other 
impediment,  was  bound  to  keep  the  Pasch  on  the  14th  of  the 
second  month,  under  pain  of  death. 

The  Pasch,  like  all  the  Old  Covenant,  though  in  a  special  degree,  had 
a  symbolical  meaning.  It  represents  the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  the  true 
Paschal  lamb,  not  one  of  whose  bones  was  broken  on  the  Cross,  and  whose 
blood  brings  forgiveness  to  mankind.  His  death  and  the  sacrifice  of  the 
Holy  Eucharist  obtained  thereby  are  means  of  salvation  for  all  men. 
For  this  reason  every  one  was  sentenced  to  death  who  took  no  part  in 
the  celebration  of  the  Pasch. 

According  to  the  Mishna  (Pesach  10),  the  Paschal  rites  were  per- 
formed as  follows:  In  commemoration  of  God's  promise  in  Exodus  vi. 
6 :  "  I  am  the  Lord,  who  will  bring  you  out  from  the  work-prison  of  the 


1  Merorim.  Apparently  these  might  not  be  selected  at  will,  but  the 
wild  lettuce  is  meant;  for  the  Septuagint  has  iriicptdes,  and  the  Vulgate 
lactuca  agrestis. 

3  It  was  not  until  the  institution  of  the  Eucharist  that  Saint  John 
leant  on  our  Lord's  breast  ( John  xiii.  25 ) . 


148    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Egyptians,  and  will  deliver  you  from  bondage  and  redeem  you  with  a 
high  arm  .  .  .  and  I  will  take  you  to  myself  for  my  people  "  —  four  cups 
of  wine  were  brought  in.  After  the  first  cup  the  roasted  lamb  with  the 
unleavened  bread  and  bitter  herbs  was  carried  in,  whilst  the  112th  and 
113th  Psalms  were  sung  (in  the  Heb.,  113  and  114).  The  second  cup  of 
wine  was  now  handed  round.  Then  the  son  asked  the  father  the  meaning 
and  significance  of  the  Paschal  ceremony  (Ex.  xii.  26)  and  the  father  ex- 
plained fully  that  it  was  held  in  remembrance  of  the  delivery  from 
Egypt  and  the  sparing  of  the  firstborn  among  the  Israelites.  The  un- 
leavened bread  was  next  distributed  and  then  the  third  cup,  the  "  cup 
of  blessing,"  was  handed  round;  it  was  so  called  because  meantime  the 
blessing  was  pronounced  over  the  food,  which  was  now  eaten.  After  the 
feast  the  fourth  cup  of  wine  was  passed  round,  and  at  the  close  the  114th 
to  117th  Psalms  were  sung.  A  fifth  cup  might  be  added;  if  so, 
Psalms  119  to  136  had  to  be  sung. 

Our  Saviour  appears  to  have  instituted  the  Holy  Eucharist  after  the 
fourth  cup  of  wine,  so  that  He  made  the  optional  fifth  cup  the  "  cup  of 
blessing"  of  the  New  Covenant  (I  Cor.  x.  6),  i.e.  the  chalice  of  His 
Blood.  Also  the  washing  of  the  feet,  which  was  the  preparation  for  the 
Holy  Eucharist,  cannot  have  taken  place  until  after  the  fourth  cup  had 
been  drunk,  for  Saint  John  says  (xiii.  2)  :  "  When  supper  was  done  .  .  . 
he  riseth  from  supper  [CK  rov  delirvdv]  and  .  .  .  girded  himself,"  etc.  In 
the  same  way  Saint  Paul  says  (I  Cor.  xi.  25)  Atera  rb  denrvrjcrai  =  postquam 
cenavit.  The  Paschal  feast  was  therefore  at  an  end;  now  followed  the 
washing  of  the  feet  and  the  feast  of  the  New  Covenant,  and  that  was 
concluded  with  singing  psalms  (Matt.  xxvi.  30). 

II.  The  Paschal  supper  was  not  the  whole  of  the  festival, 
which  lasted  for  an  entire  week.  Connected  with  the  Pasch 
was  the  seven  days'  feast  of  unleavened  bread  (cJiag  hammazzoth) 
from  the  15th  to  the  21st  of  Nisan.  On  the  15th  and  21st 
people  refrained  from  work  *  and  assembled  in  the  sanctuary ; 
the  other  days  might  be  spent  in  work,  provided  the  weekly  Sab- 
bath did  not  fall  upon  one  of  them.  On  each  of  the  seven 
days  a  special  sacrifice  was  offered  after  the  usual  daily  sacri- 
fice (Num.  xxviii.  19-23).  Only  unleavened  bread  might  be 
eaten  during  the  whole  period,  and  after  midday  on  the  14th 
no  leaven  might  remain  in  the  houses. 

1  Leviticus  xxiii.  7,  8.  "  The  first  day  shall  be  most  solemn  unto  you 
and  holy,  you  shall  do  no  servile  work  therein,  but  you  shall  offer  sacri- 
fice in  fire  to  the  Lord  seven  days.  And  the  seventh  day  shall  be  more 
solemn  and  more  holy,  and  you  shall  do  no  servile  work  therein."  Cf. 
Numbers  xxviii.  18.  As  only  "  servile  work  "  is  expressly  forbidden,  we 
may  infer  that  these  days  were  not  required  to  be  kept  as  Sabbaths.  For 
this  reason  the  bodies  of  Christ  and  the  two  thieves  could  be  taken  down 
from  the  cross  on  this  day  (John  xix.  31,  etc.). 


BACKED    SEASONS  149 

The  festival  was  regarded  as  the  beginning  of  the  harvest. 
Therefore  on  the  16th  of  Nisan,  the  second  day,1  the  beginning 
of  the  harvest  was  marked  by  the  offering  of  a  sheaf  of  barley.2 
Before  this  offering  was  made,  none  of  the  new  harvest  might 
be  used. 

Significance.  We  read  in  Exodus  xii.  34  that  for  some  days  after 
leaving  Egypt  the  Israelites  were  obliged  to  eat  unleavened  bread,  be- 
cause, in  the  haste  of  their  departure,  there  was  no  time  to  leaven  the 
bread  prepared  for  baking.  In  God's  design  this  historical  fact  was  in- 
tended to  symbolize  a  higher  thought.  Leaven  is  a  type  of  original  sin, 
and  so  unleavened  bread  was  suitable  food  for  the  sanctified  race  that 
had  just  been  cut  off  from  the  horrors  of  Egyptian  idolatry.  By  the 
yearly  recurrence  of  the  practice  of  eating  such  bread  they  were  con- 
stantly reminded  and  admonished  to  keep  themselves  free  from  sin.  — 
We  need  not  hesitate  to  assume  that  on  entering  Palestine  the  Israelites 
found  a  festival,  resembling  this  sequel  to  the  Pasch,  among  the  Chanaan- 
ites,  celebrating  the  beginning  of  harvest,  but  they  brought  their  own 
ideas  into  it.  The  same  is  true  of  Pentecost  and  the  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles at  the  close  of  the  harvest.  ( Compare  the  Yule  feast  and  the  sum- 
mer solstice  feast  observed  by  Teutonic  nations  on  December  25  and  June 
24.  The  preachers  of  Christianity  found  these  feasts  already  existing.) 


50.    PENTECOST 
(Ex.  xxxiv.  22;   Lev.  xxiii.  15,  etc.;   Deut.  xvi.  9,  etc.) 

1.  From  the  16th  of  Nisan,  on  which  the  harvest  was  opened 
by  the  offering  of  the  first  sheaf,  seven  full  weeks  were  reckoned, 
and  another  festival  observed  on  the  50th  day.    This  was  Pente- 
cost, so  called  because  it  fell  on  the  50th  day  (irevrrjicoa-Tri  sc. 
rjfjLepa)  after  the  beginning  of  harvest. 

2.  It  was  also  called  the  Feast  of  Weeks  (Ex.  xxxiv.  22;  Deut. 
xvi.  9)  because  seven  weeks  had  to  pass  before  it  might  be  cele- 
brated.   Another  name  was  the  Feast  of  the  Harvest  (Ex.  xxiii. 
16),  because  as  the  harvest  was  then  over,  it  was  regarded  as 

1  Leviticus  xxiii.    11,  mimmacJiorath  Jiaschscha'b'bat  =  altero  die  sab- 
bati.     The   15th  was  the  first  and  chief  day  of  the  festival,  on  which 
people  refrained  from  all  heavy  work.     Knobel  and  Hitzig  regard  the 
15th  as  the  beginning  of  harvest. 

2  The  law  does  not  specify  what  kind  of  grain  is  to  be  offered,  nor  does 
the  Mishna;    but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  barley  is  meant,  as  it  is  the 
first  to  ripen.     According  to  the  Mishna  it  was  not  the  sheaf  itself  that 
was  offered,  but  flour  hastily  ground  from  it,  and  of  this  an  aseara  was 
placed  on  the  altar. 


150    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

a  thanksgiving  festival.  In  Numbers  xxviii.  26  it  is  called  the 
Feast  of  First  Fruits,  because  two  loaves  were  then  offered  as  the 
first  bread  baked  from  the  new  harvest. 

3.  Legal  regulations :  (a)  Again  on  this  day  all  adult  males 
were  required  to  appear  in  the  sanctuary  (Ex.  xxiii.  16),  and 
they  were  expected  to  bring  with  them  free-will  offerings  accord- 
ing to  the  abundance  of  the  harvest.    In  later  times  this  festival 
was  largely  attended  by  foreign  Jews,  because  it  occurred  at  the 
most  favorable  season  (Acts  ii.  9-11). 

(b)  All  work,  except  cooking,  had  to  cease. 

(c)  After  the  ordinary  morning  sacrifice,  there  was  another 
special  offering  of  several  beasts  with  the  accompanying  meat 
and  drink  offerings  (Num.  xxviii.  26,  etc.). 

(d)  Two  loaves  of  wheaten  flour  were  offered  as  the  first 
fruits  of  the  harvest  now  just  gathered  in.     These  loaves  were 
leavened,  hence  they  might  not  be  burnt  on  the  altar,  but  were 
only  "  waved  "  and  then  eaten  by  the  priests.     Two  lambs  were 
sacrificed  as  a  thank  offering. 

4.  The  feast  lasted,  according  to  the  law,  only  one  day,  but 
modern  Jews  have  added  another  day. 

5.  In  Holy  Scripture  this  feast  appears  only  as  a  harvest 
festival;    but  it  cannot  be  accidental  that  it  coincides  exactly 
with  the  season  when  the  law  was  given  on  Sinai.     "We  are 
therefore  forced  to  assume  that  Pentecost  had  a  double  sig- 
nificance:   it  was  the  harvest  thanksgiving,  but  it  was  at  the 
same  time  a  commemoration  of  the  giving  of  the  law,   and 
Jewish  and  Christian  tradition  both  lay  more   stress   on  the 
latter  than  on  the  former  significance.    Cf.,  however,  H.  Grimm, 
Das  isr.  Pfingstfest  und  der  Plejadenkult,  Paderborn,  1907. 

51.    THE  DAY  OF  ATONEMENT1 

On  the  10th  day  of  Tishri,  the  7th  month,  Israel  celebrated 
every  year  its  reconciliation  with  the  Lord.  All  work  was 

1  Jom  hakkippivrim ;  in  the  Mishna  "the  Great  Day"  or  simply  "the 
Day,"  joma.  The  passages  of  the  law  relating  to  it  are  Lev.  xvi.  1-34, 
xxiii.  26-32;  Num.  xxix.  7-11.  Josephus  Flavins  refers  to  it  (Antiq., 
III.  x.  3). 


SACKED    SEASONS  151 

forbidden  on  this  day,  and  the  whole  nation  was  required  to 
fast,  i.  e.  to  take  no  food  at  all,  from  the  evening  of  the  9th  to 
the  evening  of  the  10th  of  Tishri. 

Preparations.  This  was  the  day  when  the  high  priest  per- 
formed his  chief  functions.  He  was  obliged  to  watch  during  the 
whole  preceding  night,  so  as  not  to  become  unclean  according  to 
the  law.  In  the  morning  he  bathed,  and  put  on  the  simple 
white  dress  of  a  priest.1  In  this  attire,  without  the  distinctive 
ornaments  of  his  rank,  he  appeared  as  a  penitent.  For  himself 
and  his  house,  i.  e.  for  the  entire  priesthood,  he  brought  a  young 
bullock  as  a  sin  offering  and  a  ram  as  a  burnt  offering;  and 
from  the  people  he  received  two  he-goats,  one  to  be  a  sin  offer- 
ing, the  other  to  be  turned  loose  into  the  desert,  and  also  a  ram 
to  be  a  burnt  offering.  With  these  five  beasts  expiation  was  to 
be  made  for  priests  and  people. 

After  the  ordinary  morning  sacrifice,  the  ceremonial  peculiar 
to  the  day  began,  and  the  high  priest,  standing  in  the  Court 
of  the  Temple,  before  the  sanctuary,  cast  lots  for  the  two  goats, 
to  decide  which  should  be  dedicated  to  Yahweh  and  which  to 
Asasel.2  The  one  on  whom  the  lot  fell  "for  the  Lord"  was 
destined  to  be  slain  as  a  sin  offering;  the  other  who  received 
the  lot  "  for  Asasel "  was  to  be  forever  removed  from  the  abode 
of  Israel. 

After  casting  these  lots,  the  high  priest  made  a  confession 
of  sins  and  then  slew  the  bullock  for  himself  and  all  the  priests. 
He  next  took  the  censer,  filled  it  with  coals  from  the  altar,  and 
taking  incense  with  him,  passed  through  the  Holy  Place  into 

1  His  dress  was  distinguished  from  that  of  ordinary  priests  only  by 
having  a  plain  white  girdle  instead  of  a  colored  one  (Lev.  xvi.  4). 

8  The  meaning  of  this  name  is  uncertain;  probably  it  signifies  the 
chief  devil  (Gesenii  thes.,  1012;  Ewald,  Altertumskunde,  402;  Maurer, 
Handworterbuch ;  Knobel  on  Lev.  x. ).  The  name  is  an  intensive  form  of 
'asal  or  'asal}  to  separate,  connected  with  the  Arabic  (azal.  The  full  form 
should  be  Asalsel;  in  the  same  way  Babel  is  a  shortened  form  of  Balbel, 
and  Golgotha  of  Golgoltha.  The  word  denotes  the  wicked  one,  who,  cut 
off  from  others,  lives  apart.  The  Arabs  still  believe  that  the  desert  is 
the  devil's  abode.  Cf.  also  Luke  xi.  24,  where  our  Saviour  speaks  of  the 
unclean  spirit  as  being  in  the  wilderness.  In  Tobias  viii.  3  we  read  that 
the  devil  was  banished  to  a  distant  desert.  It  was  in  the  wilderness 
that  our  Lord  was  tempted  by  the  devil. 


152    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE   BIBLE 

the  Holy  of  Holies,  where  he  strewed  the  incense  on  the  coals 
immediately,  so  that  the  cloud  of  smoke  might  rise  up  between 
him  and  the  Lord,  and  he  might  not  die.  Then  he  came  out 
again  and,  taking  with  him  the  bullock's  blood,  he  re-entered 
the  Holy  of  Holies,  and  with  his  finger  sprinkled  the  blood 
once  on  the  front  of  the  Kapporeth,  and  seven  times  on  the 
ground  in  front  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant.  Then,  com- 
ing out,  he  sacrificed  in  the  Court  the  goat  destined  for 
Yahweh,  as  a  sin  offering  on  behalf  of  the  people.  He  used 
its  blood  in  the  same  way,  going  again  into  the  Holy  of 
Holies.  By  means  of  these  sprinklings  with  blood,  the  Holy 
and  Most  Holy  Places  were  purified  from  the  defilements  that 
the  priests  might  have  caused  in  the  course  of  the  year.  The 
high  priest  now  returned  to  the  Court,  and  smeared  the  horns 
of  the  altar  of  holocausts  with  the  mingled  blood  of  *  the  bul- 
lock and  the  goat,  and  sprinkled  the  blood  seven  times  on  the 
ground  beside  the  altar.  Thus  both  the  altar  and  the  court 
were  purified. 

The  high  priest  next  proceeded  to  set  the  living  goat,  destined 
for  Asasel,  before  him  in  the  Court.  He  laid  both  his  hands 
upon  its  head  and  pronounced  a  solemn  confession  of  sin  in  the 
name  of  the  people.  A  man  stood  ready  to  drive  away  the  goat, 
thus  laden  with  sins,  into  the  desert,  that  it  might  die  or  be  lost 
there.  All  the  sins  of  Israel  were  believed  to  vanish  with  it.1 
The  high  priest  returned  to  the  sanctuary,  took  off  the  garments 
he  had  worn  hitherto,  bathed  somewhere  in  the  neighborhood, 
and  put  on  all  the  attire  belonging  to  his  office.  Then  he  went 
back  to  the  Court,  and  offered  the  two  rams,  that  still  remained, 
as  holocausts,  one  for  himself  and  the  priesthood,  the  other  for 
the  people.  The  flesh  of  the  two  sin  offerings  (the  bullock  and 
one  goat)  was  carried,  after  the  fat  had  been  burnt  on  the 
altar,  outside  the  camp  or  town,  and  was  there  destroyed  by 
fire.  Those  who  performed  this  duty,  as  well  as  the  man  who 
had  taken  the  living  goat  into  the  wilderness,  were  required  to 
wash  their  garments  and  to  bathe  before  returning. 

Other  special  sacrifices,  enumerated  in  Numbers  xxix.  7-11, 

1  The  man  received  instructions  to  throw  the  goat  down  somewhere  if 
possible,  that  it  might  be  sure  to  perish. 


SACRED    SEASONS  153 

were  offered  before  the  usual  evening  sacrifice.1    This  ended  the 
day's  ceremonies. 

If  we  are  asked  how  many  times  the  high  priest  entered  the  Holy  of 
Holies  on  this  day,  we  cannot  reply,  with  Philo,  that  he  did  so  twice,  but 
we  must  agree  with  the  Talmud  that  he  entered  it  four  times.  First  he 
carried  in  the  incense,  then  the  blood  of  the  bullock,  then  that  of  the 
goat,  and  lastly  he  had  to  fetch  out  the  censer,  which,  according  to  the 
Talmud,  he  did  after  the  evening  sacrifice.  In  coming  out  of  the  Holy 
of  Holies,  the  high  priest  was  required  never  to  turn  his  back  to  the 
Kapporeth. 

It  is  not  difficult,  after  what  has  been  said,  to  recognize  the  significa- 
tion of  this  day.  It  was  intended  that  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  all 
transgressions  of  priests  and  people  should  be  expiated.  The  chief 
feature  in  the  ceremonial  was  the  sending  forth  of  the  goat  into  the 
wilderness,  carrying  with  him  all  the  sins  of  the  Israelites  committed 
during  the  year.  The  wilderness  was  supposed  to  be  the  abode  of  devils, 
and  by  the  fact  that  the  sins  were  sent  back  thither,  they  wrere  returned 
to  the  devils,  from  whom  they  had  originally  come.2 

52.    FEAST  OF  TABERNACLES 

(Lev.  xxiii.  34,  etc.;    Ex.  xxiii.  16;    Deut.  xvi.  13) 

The  Day  of  Atonement  was  penitential  in  character,  but  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles  (chag  hassukkoth),  celebrated  five  days 
later,  was  a  joyful  festival.  It  marked  the  completion  of  the 
gathering  in  of  all  the  fruits,  and  lasted  from  the  15th  to  the 
21st  of  Tishri,  occurring  thus  exactly  six  months  after  the  Pasch. 
Sabbath  rest  was  observed  on  the  first  and  eighth  days,  i.  e.  the 
15th  and  22d  of  Tishri,  the  latter  being  added  to  close  the 
festival,  but  not  being  reckoned  as  actually  j>art  of  it ;  the  other 
days  were  not  ordered  to  be  kept  as  Sabbaths.  All  adult  males 
again  appeared  in  the  sanctuary,  and  on  each  day  solemn  sacri- 
fices were  offered.  On  the  first  day  booths  of  green  boughs  of 

1  One  he-goat  as  a  sin  offering,  one  bullock,  one  ram  and  seven  lambs 
as  holocausts,  with  the  customary  meat  and  drink  offerings. 

2  The   ceremony   called   Taschlich,   observed   by   the   Jews   in  various 
countries,  still  contains  a  reminiscence  of  the  Day  of  Atonement.    Wher- 
ever the  Jews  live  near  running  water  (as,  for  instance,  in  Vienna),  they 
are  in  the  habit  of  praying  beside  it  for  forgiveness  of  sins,  and  after 
the  prayer  they  throw  a  handkerchief  into  the  water,  or  they  put  their 
hands  into  their  pockets,  as  if  to  take  out  something  which  they  then 
pretend  to  throw  into  the  water.     The  sins  of  the  preceding  year  are 
supposed  to  be  carried  away  by  the  stream. 


154    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

trees  were  erected  in  the  streets  and  open  spaces,  and  also  on 
the  roofs  and  in  the  courtyards  of  the  houses;  and  these  were 
occupied  by  the  people  throughout  the  festival,  though  probably 
only  occasionally.  This  custom  commemorated  the  dwelling  of 
the  ancient  Israelites  in  tents,  after  their  departure  from  Egypt. 

According  to  the  Mishna  (succah  III,  1,  etc.)  those  participating  in 
the  festival  carried  in  their  hands  branches  of  citrons  and  palms.  More- 
over a  solemn  libation  of  water  was  made  each  day.  At  the  time  of  the 
morning  sacrifice  a  priest  fetched  water  from  the  spring  of  Siloe  in  a 
golden  jug,  and  poured  it  and  wine  together  into  two  bowls  or  pipes 
near  the  altar.  Music  and  singing  accompanied  this  ceremony.  In  the 
evening  the  court  of  the  women  was  illuminated  in  honor  of  the  feast. 
It  seems  that  our  Saviour  referred  to  these  customs  when  He  said  (John 
vii.  and  viii. )  :  "If  any  man  thirst,  let  him  come  to  me,"  and  "  I  am  the 
light  of  the  world."  It  is  probable  that  the  libation  of  water  had  refer- 
ence to  the  water  from  the  rock,  and  the  illumination  to  the  pillar  of 
fire  in  the  wilderness. 


53.    FESTIVALS  INSTITUTED  AFTER  THE  CAPTIVITY 

After  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  Captivity,  several  festivals 
were  added  to  those  prescribed  by  the  Mosaic  law,  and  some  of 
those  then  introduced  are  still  observed.  We  may  mention: 

1.  The  Feast  of  Purim.  The  name  comes  from  the  Persian 
word  pur,1  plural  purim  =  lots.  The  Persian  governor,  Aman, 
had  determined  on  the  death  of  all  the  Jews  in  the  Persian 
Empire,  and  the  13th  of  Adar  had  been  chosen  by  lot  as  the 
day  for  this  massacre.2  The  murderous  plan  was  frustrated 
through  Queen  Esther  and  her  kinsman,  MardochaBUS.  In  re- 
membrance of  this  event,  the  Jews,  first  in  Persia,  but  after- 
wards also  in  Palestine  and  elsewhere,  celebrated  a  festival  on 
the  14th  and  15th  of  Adar,  keeping  the  13th  as  a  fast.  The 
celebration  consisted  in  reading  the  Book  of  Esther  aloud  in 
the  synagogues;  joyful  feasts  were  held  in  the  houses  (cf.  Book 
of  Esther). 

1  Esther  iii.  7.  *U3  Heb.  Sl'l-l  =  lot. 

3  If  it  should  appear  incredible  that  so  many  thousands  could  be  mur- 
dered at  the  command  of  the  king,  we  may  remember  that  between  the 
years  1896  and  1900  in  Turkey  about  three  hundred  thousand  harmless 
Armenians  were  butchered  by  the  rabble  under  the  eyes  of  the  Turkish 
rulers.  The  ambassadors  of  the  European  powers  vainly  protested 
against  this  "  Asiatic  barbarity." 


SACKED    SEASONS  155 

2.  The  Feast  of  the  Dedication  of  the  Temple  (TO,  ey/catvia, 
Encagnia,  John  x.)  was  kept  every  year  in  commemoration  of 
the  purification  of  the  Temple  from  the  idolatrous  worship  of 
the    Syrians,   and   its   re-dedication   by   Judas    Machabaeus    in 
164  B.  c.    On  the  25th  of  Kislev  and  on  the  following  seven  days 
the  houses  in  Jerusalem  and  other  places  were  illuminated ;  hence 
Josephus  calls  the  feast  <£omi.     There  seems  to  have  been  no 
special  ceremony  in  the  Temple,  but  perhaps  more  sacrifices 
than  usual  were  offered. 

3.  The  Feast  of  Rejoicing  of  the  Law,  on  the  23d  of  Tishri. 
On  the  last  day  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  every  year  the  read- 
ing of  the  Pentateuch  was  concluded,  and  on  the  following  day 
again  begun. 

4.  The    Feast    of    Wood    Carrying    (ffXoc^o/ota    or     eoprrj 
%v\o(f>opia>v)  was,  according  to  Josephus  (Bell.  Jud.,  II,  17,  6), 
celebrated  on  the  14th  of  Ah,  but  the  Talmud  does  not  mention 
it.    It  appears  that  all  who  wished  to  do  so  carried  wood  to  the 
Temple  on  this  day,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  fire  on  the 
altar  of  holocausts. 

According  to  Nehemias  x.  34,  certain  families  were  appointed 
by  lot,  at  least  in  the  period  immediately  after  the  Captivity,  to 
supply  wood,  and  the  days  on  which  they  performed  this  duty 
were,  for  the  persons  concerned,  days  of  rejoicing  and  honor. 

Modern  Jews  observe  the  following  festivals: 

( 1 )  The  Pasch,  15th  to  22d  of  Nisan. 

(2)  Lag  Beomer,  18th  of  Ijjar,  to  commemorate  the  cessation  of  a 
pestilence. 

(3)  Pentecost,  or  Feast  of  Weeks,  6th  and  7th  of  Sivan. 

(4)  New  Year,  1st  and  2d  of  Tishri. 

(5)  Day  of  Atonement,  10th  of  Tishri. 

(6)  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  15th  to  22d  of  Tishri. 

( 7 )  Rejoicing  of  the  Law,  23d  of  Tishri. 

(8)  Dedication  of  the  Temple,  25th  of  Kislev. 

(9)  Feast  of  Purim,  14th  and  15th  of  Adar.    And  all  the  Sabbaths  of 
the  year. 


THIRD  PART 


HOLY  SCRIPTURE 

DECREES    OF    THE    HOLY    SEE    RELATING    TO 
HOLY    SCRIPTURE 

ENCYCLICAL   LETTER    PROVIDENTISSIMUS   DEUS 

November  18,  1893 

THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  CHUBCH 

THE  God  of  all  providence,  who  in  the  adorable  designs  of  His  love 
at  first  elevated  the  human  race  to  the  participation  of  the  divine 
nature,  and  afterwards  delivered  it  from  universal  guilt  and  ruin,  re- 
storing it  to  its  primitive  dignity,  has,  in  consequence,  bestowed  upon 
man  a  splendid  gift  and  safeguard  —  making  known  to  him,  by  super- 
natural means,  the  hidden  mysteries  of  His  divinity,  His  wisdom  and  His 
mercy.  For  although  in  divine  revelation  there  are  contained  some 
things  which  are  not  beyond  the  reach  of  unassisted  reason,  and  which 
are  made  the  objects  of  such  revelation  in  order  "  that  all  may  come  to 
know  them  with  facility,  certainty,  and  safety  from  error,  yet  not  on  this 
account  can  supernatural  revelation  be  said  to  be  absolutely  necessary; 
it  is  only  necessary  because  God  has  ordained  man  to  a  supernatural 
end." 1  This  supernatural  revelation,  according  to  the  belief  of  the  uni- 
versal Church,  is  contained  both  in  unwritten  tradition  and  in  written 
books,  which  are,  therefore,  called  sacred  and  canonical  because,  "being 
written  under  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  they  have  God  for  their 
author,  and  as  such  have  been  delivered  to  the  Church." 3  This  belief  has 
been  perpetually  held  and  professed  by  the  Church  in  regard  to  the  Books 
of  both  Testaments;  and  there  are  well-known  documents  of  the  gravest 
kind,  coming  down  to  us  from  the  earliest  times,  which  proclaim  that 
God,  who  spoke  first  by  the  prophets,  then  by  His  own  mouth,  and  lastly 
by  the  apostles,  composed  also  the  canonical  Scriptures,8  and  that  these 
are  His  own  oracles  and  words4  —  a  Letter  written  by  our  Heavenly 
Father  and  transmitted  by  the  sacred  writers  to  the  human  race  in  its 
pilgrimage  so  far  from  its  heavenly  country.5  If;  then,  such  and  so  great 
is  the  excellence  and  dignity  of  the  Scriptures,  that  God  Himself  has  com- 
posed them,  and  that  they  treat  of  God's  marvelous  mysteries,  counsels 


1  Cone.  Vat.  sess.  iii.  cap.  ii.  de  revel. 

2  Ibid. 

8  S.  Aug.  de  civ.  Dei.  xi.  3. 

*  S.  Clem.  Rom.  1  ad  Cor.  45;  S.  Polycarp,  ad  Phil.  7;  S.  Iren.  c. 
haer.  ii.  28,  2. 

8  S.  Chrys.  in  Gen.  horn.  2,  2;  S.  Aug.  in  Ps.  xxx.,  serm.  2,  1;  S. 
Greg.  M.  ad  Theo.  ep.  iv.  31. 


160    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE   BIBLE 

and  works,  it  follows  that  the  branch  of  sacred  theology  which  is  con- 
cerned with  the  defense  and  elucidation  of  these  divine  books  must  be 
excellent  and  useful  in  the  highest  degree. 

THE  INTENTION  OF  THE  HOLY  FATHER 

Now  We,  who  by  the  help  of  God,  and  not  without  fruit,  have  by  fre- 
quent Letters  and  exhortation  endeavored  to  promote  other  branches  of 
study  which  seem  capable  of  advancing  the  glory  of  God  and  contributing 
to  the  salvation  of  souls,  have  for  a  long  time  cherished  the  desire  to  give 
an  impulse  to  the  noble  science  of  Holy  Scripture,  and  to  impart  to  Scrip- 
ture study  a  direction  suitable  to  the  needs  of  the  present  day.  The  solici- 
tude of  the  apostolic  office  naturally  urges,  and  even  compels  us,  not  only 
to  desire  that  this  grand  source  of  Catholic  revelation  should  be  made 
safely  and  abundantly  accessible  to  the  flock  of  Jesus  Christ,  but  also 
not  to  suffer  any  attempt  to  defile  or  corrupt  it,  either  on  the  part  of 
those  who  impiously  or  openly  assail  the  Scriptures,  or  of  those  who  are 
led  astray  into  fallacious  and  imprudent  novelties.  We  are  not  igno- 
rant, indeed,  Venerable  Brethren,  that  there  are  not  a  few  Catholics, 
men  of  talent  and  learning,  who  do  devote  themselves  with  ardor  to  the 
defense  of  the  sacred  writings  and  to  making  them  known  and  better 
understood.  But  whilst  giving  to  these  the  commendation  they  deserve, 
We  cannot  but  earnestly  exhort  others  also,  from  whose  skill  and  piety 
and  learning  We  have  a  right  to  expect  good  results,  to  give  themselves 
to  the  same  most  praiseworthy  work.  It  is  Our  wish  and  fervent  desire 
to  see  an  increase  in  the  number  of  the  approved  and  persevering  laborers 
in  the  cause  of  Holy  Scripture;  and  more  especially  that  those  whom 
divine  grace  has  called  to  Holy  Orders  should,  day  by  day,  as  their  state 
demands,  display  greater  diligence  and  industry  in  reading,  meditating, 
and  explaining  it. 

BENEFIT  OF  BIBLE  STUDY 
A.    In  General 

Among  the  reasons  for  which  the  Holy  Scripture  is  so  worthy  of  com- 
mendation —  in  addition  to  its  own  excellence  and  to  the  homage  which 
we  owe  to  God's  Word  —  the  chief  of  all  is,  the  innumerable  benefits  of 
which  it  is  the  source,  according  to  the  infallible  testimony  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  Himself,  who  says:  All  Scripture  inspired  of  God  is  profitable  to 
teach,  to  reprove,  to  correct,  to  instruct  in  justice:  that  the  man  of  God 
may  be  perfect,  furnished  to  every  good  work.1  That  such  was  the  pur- 
pose of  God  in  giving  the  Scripture  to  men  is  shown  by  the  example  of 
Christ  our  Lord  and  of  His  apostles.  For  He  Himself  who  "  obtained 
authority  by  miracles,  merited  belief  by  authority,  and  by  belief  drew 
to  himself  the  multitude  " 2  was  accustomed,  in  the  exercise  of  His  divine 
mission,  to  appeal  to  the  Scriptures.  He  uses  them  at  times  to  prove 
that  He  is  sent  by  God,  and  is  God  Himself.  From  them  He  cites  in- 
structions for  His  disciples  and  confirmation  of  His  doctrine.  He  vindi- 


1  II  Tim.  iii.  16,  17.  2  S.  Aug.  de  util.  cred.  xiv.  32. 


HOLY    SCKIPTUKE  161 

cates  them  from  the  calumnies  of  objectors;  He  quotes  them  against 
Sadducees  and  Pharisees  and  retorts  from  them  upon  Satan  himself  when 
he  dares  to  tempt  Him.  At  the  close  of  His  life  His  utterances  are  from 
the  Holy  Scripture,  and  it  is  the  Scripture  that  He  expounds  to  His  dis- 
ciples after  His  resurrection,  until  He  ascends  to  the  glory  of  His  Father. 
Faithful  to  His  precepts,  the  apostles,  although  He  Himself  granted 
signs  and  wonders  to  be  done  by  their  Jtands,1  nevertheless  used  with  the 
greatest  effect  the  sacred  writings,  in  order  to  persuade  the  nations  every- 
where of  the  wisdom  of  Christianity,  to  conquer  the  obstinacy  of  the 
Jews,  and  to  suppress  the  outbreak  of  heresy.  This  is  plainly  seen  in 
their  discourses,  especially  in  those  of  St.  Peter;  these  were  often  little 
less  than  a  series  of  citations  from  the  Old  Testament  making  in  the 
strongest  manner  for  the  new  dispensation.  We  find  the  same  things  in 
the  Gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  John  and  in  the  Catholic  Epistles; 
and,  most  remarkable  of  all,  in  the  words  of  him  who  "  boasts  that  he 
learned  the  law  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel,  in  order  that,  being  armed  with 
spiritual  weapons,  he  might  afterwards  say  with  confidence,  *  the  arms  of 
our  warfare  are  not  carnal  but  mighty  unto  God.'  " 2  Let  all,  therefore, 
especially  the  novices  of  the  ecclesiastical  army,  understand  how  deeply 
the  sacred  books  should  be  esteemed,  and  with  what  eagerness  and  rever- 
ence they  should  approach  this  great  arsenal  of  heavenly  arms.  For 
those  whose  duty  it  is  to  handle  Catholic  doctrine  before  the  learned  or 
the  unlearned  will  nowhere  find  more  ample  matter  or  more  abundant 
exhortation,  whether  on  the  subject  of  God,  the  supreme  Good  and  the 
all-perfect  Being,  or  the  works  which  display  His  glory  and  His  love. 
Nowhere  is  there  anything  more  full  or  more  express  on  the  subject  of 
the  Saviour  of  the  world  than  is  to  be  found  in  the  whole  range  of  the 
Bible.  As  St.  Jerome  says,  to  be  ignorant  of  the  Scripture  is  not  to 
know  Christ.3  In  its  pages  His  Image  stands  out,  living  and  breathing; 
diffusing  everywhere  around  consolation  in  trouble,  encouragement  to 
virtue,  and  attraction  to  the  love  of  God.  And  as  to  the  Church,  her 
institutions,  her  nature,  her  office  and  her  gifts,  we  find  in  Holy  Scrip- 
ture so  many  references  and  so  many  ready  and  convincing  arguments 
that,  as  St.  Jerome  again  most  truly  says,  "  A  man  who  is  well  grounded 
in  the  testimonies  of  the  Scripture  is  the  bulwark  of  the  Church."  4  And 
if  we  come  to  morality  and  discipline,  an  apostolic  man  finds  in  the 
sacred  writings  abundant  and  excellent  assistance;  most  holy  precepts, 
gentle  and  strong  exhortation,  splendid  examples  of  every  virtue,  and 
finally  the  promise  of  eternal  reward  and  the  threat  of  eternal  punish- 
ment, uttered  in  terms  of  solemn  import,  in  God's  name  and  in  God's 
own  words. 

B.    For  the  Pulpit  Orator 

And  it  is  this  peculiar  and  singular  power  of  Holy  Scripture,  arising 
from  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  gives  authority  to  the 


1  Acts  xiv.  3. 

2  St.  Hier.  de  stud.  Script,  ad  Paulin.  ep.  liii.  3. 
8  in  Isaiam,  Prol. 

4  in  Isaiam  liv.  12. 


162    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

sacred  orator,  fills  him  with  apostolic  liberty  of  speech,  and  communicates 
force  and  power  to  his  eloquence.  For  those  who  infuse  into  their  efforts 
the  spirit  and  strength  of  the  Word  of  God  speak  not  in  word  only,  "but 
in  power  also,  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  in  much  fullness.1  Hence,  those 
preachers  are  foolish  and  improvident  who,  in  speaking  of  religion  and 
proclaiming  the  things  of  God,  use  no  words  but  those  of  human  science 
and  human  prudence,  trusting  to  their  own  reasonings  rather  than  to 
those  of  God.  Their  discourses  may  be  brilliant  and  fine,  but  they  must 
be  feeble  and  they  must  be  cold,  for  they  are  without  the  fire  of  the 
utterance  of  God2  and  they  must  fall  far  short  of  that  mighty  power 
which  the  speech  of  God  possesses:  for  the  Word  of  God  is  living  and 
effectual,  and  more  piercing  than  any  two-edged  sword;  and  reaching 
unto  the  division  of  the  soul  and  the  spirit.3  But,  indeed,  those  who  have 
a  right  to  speak  are  agreed  that  there  is  in  the  Holy  Scripture  an  elo- 
quence that  is  wonderfully  varied  and  rich  and  worthy  of  great  themes. 
This  St.  Augustine  thoroughly  understood  and  has  abundantly  set  forth.4 
This,  also,  is  confirmed  by  the  best  preachers  of  all  ages,  who  have  grate- 
fully acknowledged  that  they  owed  their  repute  chiefly  to  the  assiduous 
use  of  the  Bible,  and  to  devout  meditation  on  its  pages. 

The  Holy  Fathers  well  knew  all  this  by  practical  experience,  and  they 
never  cease  to  extol  the  sacred  Scripture  and  its  fruits.  In  innumerable 
passages  of  their  writings  we  find  them  applying  to  it  such  phrases  as  an 
inexhaustible  treasury  of  heavenly  doctrine,*  or  an  overflowing  fountain 
of  salvation,0  or  putting  it  before  us  as  fertile  pastures  and  beautiful 
gardens  in  which  the  flock  of  the  Lord  is  marvelously  refreshed  and 
delighted.7  Let  us  listen  to  the  words  of  St.  Jerome,  in  his  Epistle  to 
Nepotian :  "  Often  read  the  divine  Scriptures ;  yea,  let  holy  reading  be 
always  in  thy  hand;  study  that  which  thou  thyself  must  preach.  .  .  . 
Let  the  speech  of  the  priest  be  ever  seasoned  with  Scriptural  reading."  8 
St.  Gregory  the  Great,  than  whom  no  one  has  more  admirably  described 
the  pastoral  office,  writes  in  the  same  sense.  "  Those,"  he  says,  "  who 
are  zealous  in  the  work  of  preaching  must  never  cease  the  study  of  the 
written  Word  of  God." 8  St.  Augustine,  however,  warns  us  that "  vainly 
does  the  preacher  utter  the  Word  of  God  exteriorly  unless  he  listens  to  it 
interiorly  " ;  10  and  St.  Gregory  instructs  sacred  orators  "  first  to  find 
in  Holy  Scripture  the  knowledge  of  themselves,  and  then  carry  it  to 
others,  lest  in  reproving  others  they  forget  themselves."  n  Admonitions 
such  as  these  had,  indeed,  been  uttered  long  before  by  the  apostolic  voice 
which  had  learned  its  lesson  from  Christ  Himself,  who  "began  to  do 


I  Thess.  i.  5.  8  Hebr.  iv.  12. 

Jerem.  xxiii.  29.  *  De  doctr.  chr.  iv.  6,  7. 

S.  Chrys.  in  Gen.  Horn.  xxi.   2;    Horn.  Ix.   3;     S.  Aug.   de  Disc. 
Christ,  ii. 

S.  Athan.  ep.  fest.  xxxix. 

S.  Aug.  serm.  xxvi.  24;    S.  Ambr.  in  Ps.  cxviii.  serm.  xix.  2. 

S.  Hier.  de  vita  cleric,  ad  Nepot. 

S.  Greg.  M.  Regul.  past.  ii.  11   (al.  22) ;    Moral,  xvii.  26  (al.  14). 

10  S.  Aug.  serm.  clxxix.  1. 

11  S.  Greg.  M.  Regul.  past.  iii.  24  (al.  14). 


HOLY    SCRIPTUEE  163 

and  teach."  It  was  not  to  Timothy  alone,  but  to  the  whole  order  of  the 
clergy,  that  the  command  was  addressed:  Take  heed  to  thyself  and  to 
doctrine;  be  earnest  in  them.  For  in  doing  this  thou  shalt  both  save 
thyself  and  them  that  hear  thee*  For  the  saving  and  for  the  perfection 
of  ourselves  and  of  others  there  is  at  hand  the  very  best  of  help  in  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  as  the  Book  of  Psalms,  among  others,  so  constantly 
insists;  but  those  only  will  find  it  who  bring  to  this  divine  reading 
not  only  docility  and  attention  but  also  piety  and  an  innocent  life.  For 
the  sacred  Scripture  is  not  like  other  books.  Dictated  by  the  Holy 
Ghost,  it  contains  things  of  the  deepest  importance,  which  in  many  in- 
stances are  most  difficult  and  obscure.  To  understand  and  explain  such 
things  there  is  always  required  the  "  coming  " 2  of  the  same  Holy  Spirit ; 
that  is  to  say,  His  light  and  His  grace ;  and  these,  as  the  royal  psalmist 
so  frequently  insists,  are  to  be  sought  by  humble  prayer  and  guarded 
by  holiness  of  life. 

THE  SOLICITUDE  OF  THE  CHURCH 

It  is  in  this  that  the  watchful  eye  of  the  Church  shines  forth  con- 
spicuously. By  admirable  laws  and  regulations,  she  has  shown  herself 
solicitous  that  "  the  celestial  treasure  of  the  sacred  books,  so  bountifully 
bestowed  upon  man  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  should  not  lie  neglected." 3  She 
has  prescribed  that  a  considerable  portion  of  them  shall  be  read  and 
piously  reflected  upon  by  all  her  ministers  in  the  daily  office  of  the  sacred 
psalmody.  She  has  ordered  that  in  cathedral  churches,  in  monasteries, 
and  in  other  convents  in  which  study  can  conveniently  be  pursued,  they 
shall  be  expounded  and  interpreted  by  capable  men;  and  she  has  strictly 
commanded  that  her  children  shall  be  fed  with  the  saving  words  of  the 
Gospel  at  least  on  Sundays  and  solemn  feasts.4  Moreover,  it  is  owing  to 
the  wisdom  and  exertions  of  the  Church  that  there  has  always  been  con- 
tinued, from  century  to  century,  that  cultivation  of  Holy  Scripture  which 
has  been  so  remarkable  and  has  borne  such  ample  fruit. 

A.    In  the  Early  Times 

And  here,  in  order  to  strengthen  Our  teaching  and  Our  exhortations, 
it  is  well  to  recall  how,  from  the  beginning  of  Christianity,  all  who  have 
been  renowned  for  holiness  of  life  and  sacred  learning  have  given  their 
deep  and  constant  attention  to  Holy  Scripture.  If  we  consider  the  im- 
mediate disciples  of  the  apostles,  St.  Clement  of  Rome,  St.  Ignatius  of 
Antioch,  St.  Polycarp,  —  or  the  apologists,  such  as  St.  Justin  and  St. 
Irenseus,  —  We  find  that  in  their  letters  and  books,  whether  in  defense  of 
the  Catholic  faith  or  in  its  commendation,  they  drew  faith,  strength,  and 
unction  from  the  Word  of  God.  When  there  arose,  in  various  sees,  cate- 
chetical and  theological  schools,  of  which  the  most  celebrated  were  those 
of  Alexandria  and  of  Antioch,  there  was  little  taught  in  those  schools  but 
what  was  contained  in  the  reading,  the  interpretation,  and  the  defense 
of  the  divine  written  word.  From  them  came  forth  numbers  of  Fathers 
and  writers  whose  laborious  studies  and  admirable  writings  have  justly 

1  I  Tim.  iv.  16.  *  Cone.  Trid.  sess.  v.  decret.  de  reforaa.  1. 

2  S.  Hier.  in  Mic.  i.  10.       4  Ibid.,  1,  2. 


164    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

merited  for  the  three  following  centuries  the  appellation  of  the  golden 
age  of  biblical  exegesis.  In  the  Eastern  Church  the  greatest  name  of  all 
is  Origen  —  a  man  remarkable  alike  for  penetration  of  genius  and  perse- 
vering labor;  from  whose  numerous  works  and  his  great  Hexapla  almost 
all  have  drawn  who  came  after  him.  Others  who  have  widened  the  field 
of  this  science  may  also  be  named  as  especially  eminent;  thus,  Alexan- 
dria could  boast  of  St.  Clement  and  St.  Cyril ;  Palestine,  of  Eusebius  and 
the  other  St.  Cyril;  Cappadocia,  of  St.  Basil  the  Great  and  the  two 
Gregories,  of  Nazianzus  and  Nyssa ;  Antioch,  of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  in 
whom  the  science  of  Scripture  was  rivaled  by  the  splendor  of  his  elo- 
quence. In  the  Western  Church  there  are  as  many  names  as  great:  Ter- 
tullian,  St.  Cyprian,  St.  Hilary,  St.  Ambrose,  St.  Leo  the  Great,  St.  Greg- 
ory the  Great;  most  famous  of  all,  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Jerome,  of 
whom  the  former  was  so  marvelously  acute  in  penetrating  the  sense  of 
God's  Word  and  so  fertile  in  the  use  that  he  made  of  it  for  the  promotion 
of  the  Catholic  truth,  and  the  latter  has  received  from  the  Church,  by 
reason  of  his  pre-eminent  knowledge  of  Scripture  and  his  labors  in  pro- 
moting its  use,  the  name  of  the  "  great  Doctor." 1 


B.    In  the  Middle  Ages 

From  this  period  down  to  the  eleventh  century,  although  biblical 
studies  did  not  flourish  with  the  same  vigor  and  the  same  fruitfulness  as 
before,  yet  they  did  nourish,  and  principally  by  the  instrumentality  of 
the  clergy.  It  was  their  care  and  solicitude  that  selected  the  best  and 
most  useful  things  that  the  ancients  had  left,  arranged  them  in  order, 
and  published  them  with  additions  of  their  own  —  as  did  St.  Isidore  of 
Seville,  Venerable  Bede,  and  Alcuin,  among  the  most  prominent;  it 
.was  they  who  illustrated  the  sacred  pages  with  "glosses"  or  short 
commentaries,  as  we  see  in  Walafrid  Strabo  and  St.  Anselm  of  Laon, 
or  expended  fresh  labor  in  securing  their  integrity,  as  did  St.  Peter 
Damian  and  Blessed  Lanfranc.  In  the  twelfth  century  many  took  up, 
with  great  success,  the  allegorical  exposition  of  Scripture.  In  this  kind, 
St.  Bernard  is  pre-eminent;  and  his  writings,  it  may  be  said,  are  Scrip- 
ture all  through.  With  the  age  of  the  scholastics  came  'fresh  and  wel- 
come progress  in  the  study  of  the  Bible.  That  the  scholastics  were 
solicitous  about  the  genuineness  of  the  Latin  version  is  evident  from  the 
Correctoria  Biblica,  or  list  of  emendations,  which  they  have  left.  But 
they  expended  their  labors  and  industry  chiefly  on  interpretation  and 
explanation.  To  them  we  owe  the  accurate  and  clear  distinction,  such 
as  had  not  been  given  before,  of  the  various  senses  of  the  sacred  words; 
the  assignment  of  the  value  of  each  "  sense  "  in  theology ;  the  division 
of  books  into  parts,  and  the  summaries  of  the  various  parts;  the  inves- 
tigation of  the  objects  of  the  writers;  the  demonstration  of  the  con- 
nection of  sentence  with  sentence,  and  clause  with  clause;  all  of  which 
is  calculated  to  throw  much  light  on  the  more  obscure  passages  of  the 
sacred  volume.  The  valuable  work  of  the  scholastics  in  Holy  Scripture 
is  seen  in  their  theological  treatises  and  in  their  Scripture  commen- 

1  See  the  Collect  on  his  feast,  September  30. 


HOLY   SCRIPTURE  165 

taries;    and  in  this  respect  the  greatest  name  among  them  all  is  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas. 

When  Our  predecessor,  Clement  V,  established  chairs  of  Oriental 
literature  in  the  Roman  College  and  in  the  principal  universities  of 
Europe,  Catholics  began  to  make  more  accurate  investigation  on  the 
original  text  of  the  Bible  as  well  as  on  the  Latin  version.  The  revival 
amongst  us  of  Greek  learning,  and,  much  more,  the  happy  invention  of 
the  art  of  printing,  gave  a  strong  impetus  to  biblical  studies.  In  a  brief 
space  of  time,  innumerable  editions,  especially  of  the  Vulgate,  poured 
from  the  press  and  were  diffused  throughout  the  Catholic  world;  so 
honored  and  loved  was  Holy  Scripture  during  that  very  period  against 
which  the  enemies  of  the  Church  direct  their  calumnies. 

C.   In  Modern  Times 

Nor  must  we  forget  how  many  learned  men  there  were,  chiefly  among 
the  religious  orders,  who  did  excellent  work  for  the  Bible  between  the 
Council  of  Vienna  and  that  of  Trent ;  men  who,  by  the  employment  of 
modern  means  and  appliances,  and  by  the  tribute  of  their  own  genius 
and  learning,  not  only  added  to  the  rich  store  of  ancient  times  but  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  succeeding  century,  the  century  which  followed 
the  Council  of  Trent,  when  it  almost  seemed  that  the  great  age  of  the 
Fathers  had  returned.  For  it  is  well  known,  and  We  recall  it  with 
pleasure,  that  Our  predecessors,  from  Pius  IV  to  Clement  VIII,  caused 
to  be  prepared  the  celebrated  editions  of  the  Vulgate  and  the  Septua- 
gint,  which,  having  been  published  by  the  command  and  authority  of 
Sixtus  V,  and  of  the  same  Clement,  are  now  in  common  use.  At  this 
time,  moreover,  were  carefully  brought  out  various  other  ancient  ver- 
sions of  the  Bible,  and  the  Polyglots  of  Antwerp  and  of  Paris,  most  im- 
portant for  the  investigation  of  the  true  meaning  of  the  text;  nor  is 
there  any  one  book  of  either  Testament  which  did  not  find  more  than 
one  expositor,  nor  any  grave  question  which  did  not  profitably  exercise 
the  ability  of  many  inquirers,  among  whom  there  are  not  a  few  —  more 
especially  of  those  who  made  most  use  of  the  Fathers  —  who  have  ac- 
quired great  reputation.  From  that  time  downwards  the  labor  and 
solicitude  of  Catholics  have  never  been  wanting;  for,  as  time  went  on, 
eminent  scholars  have  carried  on  biblical  studies  with  success,  and  have 
defended  Holy  Scripture  against  rationalism  with  the  same  weapons  of 
philology  and  kindred  sciences  with  which  it  had  been  attacked.  The 
calm  and  fair  consideration  of  what  has  been  said  will  clearly  show  that 
the  Church  has  never  failed  in  taking  due  measures  to  bring  the  Scrip- 
tures within  reach  of  her  children,  and  that  she  has  ever  held  fast  and 
exercised  profitably  that  guardianship  conferred  upon  her  by  Almighty 
God  for  the  protection  and  glory  of  His  Holy  Word;  so  that  she  has 
never  required,  nor  does  she  now  require,  any  stimulation  from  without. 

.  RULES  FOB  THE  PBESENT  TIME 

We  must  now,  Venerable  Brethren,  as  Our  purpose  demands,  impart 
to  you  such  counsels  as  seem  best  suited  for  carrying  on  successfully 
the  study  of  biblical  science. 


166    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

But  first  it  must  be  clearly  understood  whom  we  have  to  oppose  and 
contend  against,  and  what  are  their  tactics  and  their  arms.  In  earlier 
times  the  contest  was  chiefly  with  those  who,  relying  on  private  judg- 
ment and  repudiating  the  divine  traditions  and  teaching  office  of  the 
Church,  held  the  Scriptures  to  be  the  one  source  of  revelation  and  the 
final  appeal  in  matters  of  faith.  Now  we  have  to  meet  the  rationalists, 
true  children  and  inheritors  of  the  older  heretics,  who,  trusting  in  their 
turn  to  their  own  way  of  thinking,  have  rejected  even  the  scraps  and 
remnants  of  Christian  belief  which  had  been  handed  down  to  them. 
They  deny  that  there  is  any  such  thing  as  revelation  or  inspiration,  or 
Holy  Scripture  at  all;  they  see,  instead,  only  the  forgeries  and  false- 
hoods of  men;  they  set  down  the  Scripture  narratives  as  stupid  fables 
and  lying  stories:  the  prophecies  and  oracles  of  God  are  to  them  either 
predictions  made  up  after  the  event  or  forecasts  formed  by  the  light  of 
nature;  the  miracles  and  wonders  of  God's  power  are  not  what  they  are 
said  to  be,  but  the  startling  effects  of  natural  law,  or  else  mere  tricks 
and  myths;  and  the  apostolic  Gospels  and  writings  are  not  the  work  of 
the  apostles  at  all.  These  detestable  errors,  whereby  they  think  they  de- 
stroy the  truth  of  the  divine  books,  are  obtruded  on  the  wjorld  as  the 
peremptory  pronouncements  of  a  newly  invented  free  science;  a  science, 
however,  which  is  so  far  from  final  that  they  are  perpetually  modifying 
and  supplementing  it.  And  there  are  some  of  them  who,  notwithstand- 
ing their  impious  opinions  and  utterances  about  God,  and  Christ,  the 
Gospels  and  the  rest  of  Holy  Scripture,  would  fain  be  considered  both 
theologians  and  Christians  and  men  of  the  Gospel,  and  who  attempt  to 
disguise  by  such  honorable  names  their  rashness  and  their  pride.  To 
them  we  must  add  not  a  few  professors  of  other  sciences  who  approve 
their  views  and  give  them  assistance,  and  are  urged  to  attack  the  Bible 
by  a  similar  intolerance  of  revelation.  And  it  is  deplorable  to  see  these 
attacks  growing  every  day  more  numerous  and  more  severe.  It  is  some- 
times men  of  learning  and  judgment  who  are  assailed;  but  these  have 
little  difficulty  in  defending  themselves  from  evil  consequences.  The 
efforts  and  arts  of  the  enemy  are  chiefly  directed  against  the  more  igno- 
rant masses  of  the  people.  They  diffuse  their  deadly  poison  by  means  of 
books,  pamphlets,  and  newspapers;  they  spread  it  by  addresses  and  by 
conversation;  they  are  found  everywhere;  and  they  are  in  possession 
of  numerous  schools,  taken  by  violence  from  the  Church,  in  which,  by 
ridicule  and  scurrilous  jesting,  they  pervert  the  credulous  and  unformed 
minds  of  the  young  to  the  contempt  of  Holy  Scripture.  Should  not  these 
things,  Venerable  Brethren,  stir  up  and  set  on  fire  the  heart  of  every 
pastor,  so  that  to  this  knowledge,  falsely  so-called,1  may  be  opposed  the 
ancient  and  true  science  which  the  Church,  through  the  apostles,  has 
received  from  Christ,  and  that  Holy  Scripture  may  find  the  champions 
that  are  needed  in  so  momentous  a  battle? 

Let  our  first  care,  then,  be  to  see  that  in  seminaries  and  academical 
institutions  the  study  of  Holy  Scripture  is  placed  on  such  a  footing  as 
its  own  importance  and  the  circumstances  of  the  time  demand.  With 
this  view,  the  first  thing  which  requires  attention  is  the  wise  choice  of 
professors.  Teachers  of  sacred  Scripture  are  not  to  be  appointed  at  hap- 


1  I  Tim.  iv.  20. 


HOLY    SCEIPTUEE  167 

hazard  out  of  the  crowd;  but  they  must  be  men  whose  character  and 
fitness  are  proved  by  their  love  of,  and  their  long  familiarity  with,  the 
Bible,  and  by  suitable  learning  and  study. 

It  is  a  matter  of  equal  importance  to  provide  in  time  for  a  continuous 
succession  of  such  teachers;  and  it  will  be  well,  wherever  this  can  be 
done,  to  select  young  men  of  good  promise  who  have  successfully  accom- 
plished their  theological  course,  and  to  set  them  apart  exclusively  for 
Holy  Scripture,  affording  them  facilities  for  full  and  complete  studies. 
Professors  thus  chosen  and  thus  prepared  may  enter  with  confidence  on 
the  task  that  is  appointed  for  them;  and  that  they  may  carry  out  their 
work  well  and  profitably,  let  them  take  heed  to  the  instructions  We  now 
proceed  to  give. 

INTRODUCTION 

At  the  commencement  of  a  course  of  Holy  Scripture,  let  the  professor 
strive  earnestly  to  form  the  judgment  of  the  young  beginners  so  as  to 
train  them  equally  to  defend  the  sacred  writings  and  to  penetrate  their 
meaning.  This  is  the  object  of  the  treatise  which  is  called  "Introduc- 
tion." Here  the  student  is  taught  how  to  prove  the  integrity  and  author- 
ity of  the  Bible,  how  to  investigate  and  ascertain  its  true  sense,  and  how 
to  meet  and  refute  objections.  It  is  needless  to  insist  upon  the  impor- 
tance of  making  these  preliminary  studies  in  an  orderly  and  thorough 
fashion,  with  the  accompaniment  and  assistance  of  theology;  for  the 
whole  subsequent  course  must  rest  on  the  foundation  thus  laid  and  make 
use  of  the  light  thus  acquired. 

INTERPRETATION 

Next,  the  teacher  will  turn  his  attention  to  that  more  fruitful  division 
of  Scripture  science  which  has  to  do  with  interpretation,  wherein  is  im- 
parted the  method  of  using  the  Word  of  God  for  the  advantage  of  reli- 
gion and  piety.  We  recognize,  without  hesitation,  that  neither  the  extent 
of  the  matter  nor  the  time  at  disposal  allows  each  single  book  of  the 
Bible  to  be  separately  gone  through.  But  the  teaching  should  result  in 
a  definite  and  ascertained  method  of  interpretation  —  and,  therefore,  the 
professor  should  equally  avoid  the  mistake  of  giving  a  mere  taste  of 
every  book,  and  of  dwelling  at  too  great  a  length  on  a  part  of  one  book. 
If  most  schools  cannot  do  what  is  done  in  large  institutions  —  take  the 
students  through  the  whole  of  one  or  two  books  continuously  and  with 
a  certain  development  —  yet  at  least  those  parts  which  are  selected 
should  be  treated  with  suitable  fullness,  in  such,  a  way  that  the  students 
may  learn  from  the  sample  that  is  put  before  them  to  love  and  use  the 
remainder  of  the  sacred  book  during  the  whole  of  their  lives.  The  pro- 
fessor, following  the  tradition  of  antiquity,  will  make  use  of  the  Vulgate 
as  his  text ;  for  the  Council  of  Trent  decreed  that  "  in  public  lectures, 
disputations,  preaching,  and  exposition," l  the  Vulgate  is  the  "  authen- 
tic "  version ;  and  this  is  the  existing  custom  of  the  Church.  At  the 
same  time,  the  other  versions,  which  Christian  antiquity  has  approved, 
should  not  be  neglected,  more  especially  the  more  ancient  MSS.  For, 

1  Sess.  iv.  deer,  de  edit,  et  usu  sacr.  libror. 


168    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

although  the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  is  substantially  rendered 
by  the  Vulgate,  nevertheless  wherever  there  may  be  ambiguity  or  want  of 
clearness,  the  "  examination  of  older  tongues,"  *  to  quote  St.  Augustine, 
will  be  useful  and  advantageous.  But  in  this  matter  we  need  hardly  say 
that  the  greatest  prudence  is  required,  for  the  "  office  of  a  commentator," 
as  St.  Jerome  says,  "  is  to  set  forth  not  what  he  himself  would  prefer  but 
what  his  author  says." 2  The  question  of  "  reading "  having  been,  when 
necessary,  carefully  discussed,  the  next  thing  is  to  investigate  and  ex- 
pound the  meaning.  And  the  first  counsel  to  be  given  is  this:  that  the 
more  our  adversaries  contend  to  the  contrary,  so  much  the  more  solici- 
tously should  we  adhere  to  the  received  and  approved  canons  of  inter- 
pretation. Hence,  whilst  weighing  the  meaning  of  words,  the  connec- 
tion of  ideas,  the  parallelism  of  passages,  and  the  like,  we  should  by  all 
means  make  use  of  such  illustrations  as  can  be  drawn  from  opposite 
erudition  of  an  external  sort;  but  this  should  be  done  with  caution,  so 
as  not  to  bestow  on  questions  of  this  kind  more  labor  and  time  than  are 
spent  on  the  sacred  books  themselves,  and  not  to  overload  the  minds  of 
the  students  with  a  mass  of  information  that  will  be  rather  a  hindrance 
than  a  help. 

The  professor  may  now  safely  pass  on  to  the  use  of  Scripture  in  mat- 
ters of  theology.  On  this  head  it  must  be  observed  that,  in  addition  to 
the  usual  reasons  which  make  ancient  writings  more  or  less  difficult  to 
understand,  there  are  some  which  are  peculiar  to  the  Bible.  For  the 
language  of  the  Bible  is  employed  to  express,  under  the  inspiration  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  many  things  which  are  beyond  the  power  and  scope  of 
the  reason  of  man  —  that  is  to  say,  divine  mysteries  and  all  that  is 
related  to  them.  There  is  sometimes  in  such  passages  a  fullness  and  a 
hidden  depth  of  meaning  which  the  letter  hardly  expresses  and  which 
the  laws  of  interpretation  hardly  warrant.  Moreover,  the  literal  sense 
itself  frequently  admits  other  senses,  adapted  to  illustrate  dogma  or  to 
confirm  morality. 

SENSUS,  QUEM  TENET  ECCLESIA 

Wherefore,  it  must  be  recognized  that  the  sacred  writings  are  wrapped 
in  a  certain  religious  obscurity,  and  that  no  one  can  enter  into  their 
interior  without  a  guide ;  3  God  so  disposing,  as  the  holy  Fathers  com- 
monly teach,  in  order  that  men  may  investigate  them  with  greater  ardor 
and  earnestness,  and  that  what  is  attained  with  difficulty  may  sink 
more  deeply  into  the  mind  and  heart,  and,  most  of  all,  that  they  may 
understand  that  God  has  delivered  the  Holy  Scripture  to  the  Church, 
and  that  in  reading  and  making  use  of  His  Word  they  must  follow  the 
Church  as  their  guide  and  their  teacher.  St.  Irenseus  long  since  laid 
down  that  where  the  chrismata  of  God  were,  there  the  truth  was  to  be 
learned,  and  the  Holy  Scripture  was  safely  interpreted  by  those  who 
had  the  apostolic  succession.4  His  teaching  and  that  of  other  holy 

1  De  doctr.  chr.  iii.  4. 

2  Ad  Pammachium. 

8  S.  Hier.  ad  Paulin.  de  studio  Script,  ep.  liii.  4. 
4  C.  haer.  iv.  26,  5. 


HOLY    SCEIPTUKE  169 

Fathers  is  taken  up  by  the  Council  of  the  Vatican,  which  in  renewing 
the  decree  of  Trent  declared  its  "  mind  "  to  be  this  —  that  "  in  things  of 
faith  and  morals,  belonging  to  the  building  up  of  Christian  doctrine, 
that  it  is  to  be  considered  the  true  sense  of  Holy  Scripture,  which  has 
been  held  and  is  held  by  our  Holy  Mother  the  Church,  whose  place  it  is 
to  judge  of  the  true  sense  and  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures;  and, 
therefore,  that  it  is  permitted  to  no  one  to  interpret  Holy  Scripture 
against  such  sense  or  also  against  the  unanimous  agreement  of  the 
Fathers." 1 

No  RESTRAINT 

By  this  most  wise  decree  the  Church  by  no  means  prevents  or  restrains 
the  pursuit  of  biblical  science,  but  rather  protects  it  from  error,  and 
largely  assists  its  real  progress.  A  wide  field  is  still  left  open  to  the 
private  student,  in  which  his  hermeneutical  skill  may  display  itself  with 
signal  effect  and  to  the  advantage  of  the  Church.  On  the  one  hand,  in 
those  passages  of  Holy  Scripture  which  have  not  as  yet  received  a  certain 
and  definite  interpetation,  such  labors  may,  in  the  benignant  providence 
of  God,  prepare  for  and  bring  to  maturity  the  judgment  of  the  Church; 
on  the  other,  in  passages  already  defined,  the  private  student  may  do 
work  equally  valuable,  either  by  setting  them  forth  more  clearly  to  the 
flock  or  more  skillfully  to  the  scholars,  or  by  defending  them  more  power- 
fully from  hostile  attack.  Wherefore  the  first  and  dearest  object  of  the 
Catholic  commentator  should  be  to  interpret  those  passages  which  have 
received  an  authentic  interpretation  either  from  the  sacred  writers  them- 
selves, under  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (as  in  many  places  of  the 
New  Testament),  or  from  the  Church,  under  the  assistance  of  the  same 
Holy  Spirit,  whether  by  her  solemn  judgment  or  by  her  ordinary  and 
universal  magisterium 2  —  to  interpret  these  passages  in  that  identical 
sense,  and  to  prove  by  all  the  resources  of  science  that  sound  hermeneu- 
tical laws  admit  of  no  other  interpretation.  In  the  other  passages  the 
analogy  of  faith  should  be  followed,  and  Catholic  doctrine,  as  authorita- 
tively proposed  by  the  Church,  should  be  held  as  the  supreme  law;  for, 
seeing  that  the  same  God  is  the  author  both  of  the  sacred  books  and  of 
the  doctrine  committed  to  the  Church,  it  is  clearly  impossible  that  any 
teaching  can,  by  legitimate  means,  be  extracted  from  the  former  which 
shall,  in  any  respect,  be  at  variance  with  the  latter.  Hence  it  follows 
that  all  interpretation  is  foolish  or  false  which  either  makes  the  sacred 
writers  disagree  one  with  another,  or  is  opposed  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
Church. 

COMMENTARIES  OF  THE  FATHEES 

The  professor  of  Holy  Scripture,  therefore,  amongst  other  recommen- 
dations, must  be  well  acquainted  with  the  whole  circle  of  theology  and 
deeply  read  in  the  commentaries  of  the  holy  Fathers  and  Doctors,  and  in 
other  interpreters  of  mark.3  This  is  inculcated  by  St.  Jerome,  and  still 

1  Sess.  iii.  cap.  ii.  de  revel.;    cf.  Cone.  Trid.  sess.  iv.  decret  de  edit, 
et  usu  sacr.  libror. 

2  Cone.  Vat.  sess.  iii.  cap.  ii.  de  fide. 
8  Ibid. 


170    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

more  frequently  by  St.  Augustine,  who  thus  justly  complains :  "  If  there 
is  no  branch  of  teaching,  however  humble  and  easy  to  learn,  which  does 
not  require  a  master,  what  can  be  a  greater  sign  of  rashness  and  pride 
than  to  refuse  to  study  the  books  of  the  divine  mysteries  by  the  help  of 
those  who  have  interpreted  them  ?  "  *  The  other  Fathers  have  said  the 
same,  and  have  confirmed  it  by  their  example,  for  they  "  endeavored  to 
acquire  the  understanding  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  not  by  their  own  lights 
and  ideas  but  from  the  writing  and  authority  of  the  ancients,  who.  in 
their  turn,  as  we  know,  received  the  rule  of  interpretation  in  direct  line 
from  the  apostles."2  The  holy  Fathers  "to  whom,  after  the  apostles, 
the  Church  owes  its  growth  —  who  have  planted,  watered,  built,  gov- 
erned, and  cherished  it " ; 3  the  holy  Fathers,  We  say,  are  of  supreme 
authority,  whenever  they  all  interpret  in  one  and  the  same  manner  any 
text  of  the  Bible,  as  pertaining  to  the  doctrine  of  faith  and  morals;  for 
their  unanimity  clearly  evinces  that  such  interpretation  has  come  down 
from  the  apostles  as  a  matter  of  Catholic  faith.  The  opinion  of  the 
Fathers  is  also  of  very  great  weight  when  they  treat  of  these  matters 
in  their  capacity  of  Doctors  unofficially;  not  only  because  they  excel  in 
their  knowledge  of  revealed  doctrine  and  in  their  acquaintance  with 
many  things  which  are  useful  in  understanding  the  apostolic  'books,  but 
because  they  are  men  of  eminent  sanctity  and  of  ardent  zeal  for  the 
truth,  on  whom  God  has  bestowed  a  more  ample  measure  of  His  light. 
Wherefore  the  expositor  should  make  it  his  duty  to  follow  their  foot- 
steps with  all  reverence,  and  to  use  their  labors  with  intelligent 
appreciation. 

But  he  must  not  on  that  account  consider  that  it  is  forbidden,  when 
just  cause  exists,  to  push  inquiry  and  exposition  beyond  what  the 
Fathers  have  done;  provided  he  carefully  observes  the  rule  so  wisely 
laid  down  by  St.  Augustne  —  not  to  depart  from  the  literal  and  obvious 
sense,  except  only  where  reason  makes  it  untenable  or  necessity  re- 
quires ;  4  a  rule  to  which  it  is  the  more  necessary  to  adhere  strictly  in 
these  times,  when  the  thirst  for  novelty  and  the  unrestrained  freedom  of 
thought  make  the  danger  of  error  most  real  and  proximate.  Neither 
should  those  passages  be  neglected  which  the  Fathers  have  understood 
in  an  allegorical  or  figurative  sense,  more  especially  when  such  interpre- 
tation is  justified  by  the  literal,  and  when  it  rests  on  the  authority  of 
many.  For  this  method  of  interpretation  has  been  received  by  the 
Church  from  the  apostles,  and  has  been  approved  by  her  own  practice, 
as  the  holy  Liturgy  attests;  although  it  is  true  that  the  holy  Fathers 
did  not  thereby  pretend  directly  to  demonstrate  dogmas  of  faith,  but 
used  it  as  a  means  of  promoting  virtue  and  piety,  such  as,  by  their  own 
experience,  they  knew  to  be  most  valuable. 

OTHER  INTERPRETERS 

The  authority  of  other  Church  interpreters  is  not  so  great;  but  the 
study  of  Scripture  has  always  continued  to  advance  in  the  Church,  and, 
therefore,  these  commentaries  also  have  their  own  honorable  place,  and 


1  Ad  Honorat.  de  util.  cred.  xvii.  35.      3  S.  Aug.  c.  Julian,  ii.  10,  37. 

2  Rufinus  Hist.  eccl.  li.  9.  4  De  Gen.  ad  litt.  Iviii.  c.  7,  13. 


HOLY    SCRIPTUKE  171 

are  serviceable  in  many  ways  for  the  refutation  of  assailants  and  the 
explanation  of  difficulties.  But  it  is  most  unbecoming  to  pass  by,  in 
ignorance  or  contempt,  the  excellent  work  which  Catholics  have  left  in 
abundance,  and  to  have  recourse  to  the  work  of  non-Catholics  —  and  to 
seek  in  them,  to  the  detriment  of  sound  doctrine  and  often  to  the  peril 
of  faith,  the  explanation  of  passages  on  which  Catholics  long  ago  have 
successfully  employed  their  talent  and  their  labor.  For  although  the 
studies  of  non-Catholics,  used  with  prudence,  may  sometimes  be  of  use  to 
the  Catholic  student,  he  should,  nevertheless,  bear  well  in  mind  —  as  the 
Fathers  also  teach  in  numerous  passages J  —  that  the  sense  of  Holy  Scrip- 
ture can  nowhere  be  found  incorrupt  outside  the  Church,  and  cannot  be 
expected  to  be  found  in  writers  who,  being  without  the  true  faith,  only 
know  the  bark  of  sacred  Scripture,  and  never  attain  its  pith. 

THE  PLACE  OF  SCRIPTURE  RESEARCH  AMONG  THEOLOGICAL  STUDIES 

Most  desirable  is  it,  and  most  essential,  that  the  whole  teaching  of 
theology  should  be  pervaded  and  animated  by  the  use  of  the  divine  Word 
of  God.  That  is  what  the  Fathers  and  the  greatest  theologians  of  all 
ages  have  desired  and  reduced  to  practice.  It  is  chiefly  out  of  the  sacred 
writings  that  they  endeavored  to  proclaim  and  establish  the  Articles  of 
Faith  and  the  truths  therewith  connected,  and  it  was  in  them,  together 
with  divine  tradition,  that  they  found  the  refutation  of  heretical  error, 
and  the  reasonableness,  the  true  meaning,  and  the  mutual  relation  of 
the  truths  of  Catholicism.  Nor  will  any  one  wonder  at  this  who  con- 
siders that  the  sacred  books  hold  such  an  eminent  position  among  the 
sources  of  revelation  that  without  their  assiduous  study  and  use  theol- 
ogy cannot  be  placed  on  a  true  footing,  or  treated  as  its  dignity  de- 
mands. For  although  it  is  right  and  proper  that  students  in  academies 
and  schools  should  be  chiefly  exercised  in  acquiring  a  scientific  knowl- 
edge of  dogma,  by  means  of  reasoning  from  the  Articles  of  Faith  to  their 
consequences,  according  to  the  rules  of  approved  and  sound  philosophy  — 
nevertheless  the  judicious  and  instructed  theologian  will  by  no  means 
pass  by  that  method  of  doctrinal  demonstration  which  draws  its  proof 
from  the  authority  of  the  Bible ;  "  for  theology  does  not  receive  her  first 
principles  from  any  other  science,  but  immediately  from  God  by  revela- 
tion. And,  therefore,  she  does  not  receive  of  other  sciences  as  from  a 
superior,  but  uses  them  as  her  inferiors  or  handmaids."2  It  is  this 
view  of  doctrinal  teaching  which  is  laid  down  and  recommended  by  the 
prince  of  theologians,  St.  Thomas  of  Aquin ; 3  who  moreover  shows  — 
such  being  the  essential  character  of  Christian  theology  —  how  she  can 
defend  her  own  principles  against  attack :  "  If  the  adversary,"  he  says, 
"  do  but  grant  any  portion  of  the  divine  revelation,  we  have  an  argu- 
ment against  him;  thus,  against  a  heretic  we  can  employ  Scripture 
authority,  and  against  those  who  deny  one  article  we  can  use  another. 


1  Cfr.  Clem.  Alex.  Strom,  vii.  16;   Orig.  de  princ.  iv.  8;   in  Levit.  horn. 

48;  Tertull.  de  praescr.  15,  seqq.;    S.  Hilar.  Pict.  in  Matt.  13,  1. 

3  S.  Greg.  M.  Moral,  xx.  9  (al.  11). 

8  Summ.  Theol.  p.  i.  q.  i.  a.  5  ad  2. 


172    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

But  if  our  opponent  reject  divine  revelation  entirely,  there  is  no  way 
left  to  prove  the  Articles  of  Faith  by  reasoning;  we  can  only  solve  the 
difficulties  which  are  raised  against  them."  *  Care  must  be  taken,  then, 
that  beginners  approach  the  study  of  the  Bible  well  prepared  and  fur- 
nished; otherwise,  just  hopes  will  be  frustrated,  or,  perchance,  what  is 
worse,  they  will  unthinkingly  risk  the  danger  of  error,  falling  an  easy 
prey  to  the  sophisms  and  labored  erudition  of  the  rationalists.  The  best 
preparation  will  be  a  conscientious  application  to  philosophy  and  the- 
ology under  the  guidance  of  St.  Thomas  of  Aquin,  and  a  thorough  train- 
ing therein —  as  We  Ourselves  have  elsewhere  pointed  out  and  directed. 
By  this  means,  both  in  biblical  studies  and  in  that  part  of  theology 
which  is  called  positive,  they  will  pursue  the  right  path  and  make  satis- 
factory progress. 

AUTHORITY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

To  prove,  to  expound,  to  illustrate  Catholic  doctrine  by  the  legitimate 
and  skillful  interpretation  of  the  Bible  is  much;  but  there  is  a  second 
part  of  the  subject  of  equal  importance  and  equal  difficulty  —  the  main- 
tenance in  the  strongest  possible  way  of  its  full  authority.  This  cannot 
be  done  completely  or  satisfactorily  except  by  means  of  the  living  and 
proper  magisterium  of  the  Church.  The  Church,  by  reason  of  her  won- 
derful propagation,  her  distinguished  sanctity,  and  inexhaustible  fecun- 
dity in  good,  her  Catholic  unity,  and  her  unshaken  stability,  is  herself 
a  great  and  perpetual  motive  of  credibility,  and  an  unassailable  testi- 
mony to  her  own  divine  mission." 2  But,  since  the  divine  and  infallible 
magisterium  of  the  Church  rests  also  on  Holy  Scripture,  the  first  thing 
to  be  done  is  to  vindicate  the  trustworthiness  of  sacred  records,  at  least 
as  human  documents,  from  which  can  be  clearly  proved,  as  from  primi- 
tive and  authentic  testimony,  the  divinity  and  the  mission  of  Christ  our 
Lord,  the  institution  of  a  hierarchical  Church  and  the  primacy  of  Peter 
and  his  successors. 

DEFENDERS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

It  is  most  desirable,  therefore,  that  there  should  be  numerous  mem- 
bers of  the  clergy  well  prepared  to  enter  on  a  contest  of  this  nature,  and 
to  repulse  hostile  assaults,  chiefly  trusting  in  the  armor  of  God  recom- 
mended by  the  Apostle,3  but  also  not  unaccustomed  to  modern  methods 
of  attack.  This  is  beautifully  alluded  to  by  St.  John  Chrysostom,  when 
describing  the  duties  of  priests :  "  We  must  use  every  endeavor  that  the 
'  Word  of  God  may  dwell  in  us  abundantly ' ;  *  not  merely  for  one  kind 
of  a  fight  must  we  be  prepared  —  for  the  contest  is  many-sided  and  the 
enemy  is  of  every  sort;  and  they  do  not  all  use  the  same  weapons  nor 
make  their  onset  in  the  same  way.  Wherefore  it  is  needful  that  the 
man  who  has  to  contend  against  all  should  be  acquainted  with  the  en- 
gines and  the  arts  of  all  —  that  he  should  be  at  once  archer  and  slinger, 
commandant  and  officer,  general  and  private  soldier,  foot-soldier  and 
horseman,  skilled  in  sea-fight  and  in  siege;  for  unless  he  knows  every 


1  Ibid.  a.  8.  "  Eph.  vi.  13,  seqq. 

*  Cone.  Vat.  sess.  iii.  c.  ii.  de  fide.         4  Cfr.  Coloss.  iii.  16. 


HOLY    SCEIPTUEE  173 

trick  and  turn  of  war,  the  devil  is  well  able,  if  only  a  single  door  be  left 
open,  to  get  in  his  fierce  bands  and  carry  off  the  sheep."  1  The  sophisms 
of  the  enemy  and  his  manifold  arts  of  attack  we  have  already  touched 
upon.  Let  us  now  say  a  word  of  advice  on  the  means  of  defense. 

MEANS  OF  DEFENSE 
A.   Ancient  Languages 

The  first  means  is  the  study  of  the  Oriental  languages  and  of  the  art 
of  criticism.  These  two  acquirements  are  in  these  days  held  in  high 
estimation,  and,  therefore,  the  clergy,  by  making  themselves  fully  ac- 
quainted with  them  as  time  and  place  may  demand,  will  the  better  be 
able  to  discharge  their  office  with  becoming  credit;  for  they  must  make 
themselves  all  to  all,2  always  ready  to  satisfy  every  one  that  asketh  them 
a  reason  for  the  hope  that  is  in  them.3  Hence  it  is  most  proper  that  pro- 
fessors of  sacred  Scripture  and  theologians  should  master  those  tongues 
in  which  the  sacred  books  were  originally  written;  and  it  would  be  well 
that  Church  students  also  should  cultivate  them,  more  especially  those 
who  aspire  to  academic  degrees.  And  endeavors  should  be  made  to  estab- 
lish in  all  academic  institutions  —  as  has  already  been  laudably  done  in 
many  —  chairs  of  the  other  ancient  languages,  especially  the  Semitic, 
and  of  subjects  connected  therewith,  for  the  benefit,  principally,  of  those 
who  are  intended  to  profess  sacred  literature. 


B.    Criticism 

These  latter,  with  a  similar  object  in  view,  should  make  themselves 
well  and  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  art  of  true  criticism.  There 
has  arisen,  to  the  great  detriment  of  religion,  an  inept  method,  dignified 
by  the  name  of  the  "higher  criticism,"  which  pretends  to  judge  the 
origin,  integrity  and  authority  of  each  book  from  internal  indications 
alone.  It  is  clear,  on  the  other  hand,  that  in  historical  questions,  such  as 
the  origin  and  handing  down  of  writings,  the  witness  of  history  is  of 
primary  importance,  and  that  historical  investigation  should  be  made 
with  the  utmost  care;  and  that  in  this  manner  internal  evidence  is  sel- 
dom of  great  value,  except  as  confirmation.  To  look  upon  it  in  any  other 
light  will  be  to  open  the  door  to  many  evil  consequences.  It  will  make 
the  enemies  of  religion  much  more  bold  and  confident  in  attacking  and 
mangling  the  sacred  books;  and  this  vaunted  '• ;  higher  criticism  "  will 
resolve  itself  into  the  reflection  of  the  bias  and  the  prejudice  of  the 
critics.  It  will  not  throw  on  the  Scripture  the  light  which  is  sought,  or 
prove  of  any  advantage  to  doctrine;  it  will  only  give  rise  to  disagree- 
ment and  dissension,  those  sure  notes  of  error  which  the  critics  in  ques- 
tion so  plentifully  exhibit  in  their  own  persons ;  and  seeing  that  most  of 
them  are  tainted  with  false  philosophy  and  rationalism,  it  must  lead  to 
the  elimination  from  the  sacred  writings  of  all  prophecy  and  miracle, 
and  of  everything  else  that  is  outside  the  natural  order. 

1  De  Sacerdotio  iv.  4.  2  I  Cor.  ix.  22.  8  I  Peter  iii.  15. 


174    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


C.    Natural  Sciences 

In  the  second  place,  we  have  to  contend  against  those  who,  making  an 
evil  use  of  physical  science,  minutely  scrutinize  the  sacred  book  in  order 
to  detect  the  writers  in  a  mistake,  and  to  take  occasion  to  vilify  its  con- 
tents. Attacks  of  this  kind,  bearing  as  they  do  on  matters  of  sensible 
experience,  are  peculiarly  dangerous  to  the  masses,  and  also  to  the  young 
who  are  beginning  their  literary  studies ;  for  the  young,  if  they  lose  their 
reverence  for  the  Holy  Scripture  on  one  or  more  points,  are  easily  led  to 
give  up  believing  in  it  altogether.  It  need  not  be  pointed  out  how  the 
nature  of  science,  just  as  it  is  so  admirably  adapted  to  show  forth  the 
glory  of  the  Great  Creator,  provided  it  is  taught  as  it  should  be,  may, 
if  it  be  perversely  imparted  to  the  youthful  intelligence,  prove  most 
fatal  in  destroying  the  principles  of  true  philosophy  and  in  the  corrup- 
tion of  morality.  Hence,  to  the  professor  of  Sacred  Scripture  a  knowl- 
edge of  natural  science  will  be  of  very  great  assistance  in  detecting 
such  attacks  on  the  sacred  books,  and  in  refuting  them.  There  can 
never,  indeed,  be  any  real  discrepancy  between  the  theologian  and  the 
physicist,  as  long  as  each  confines  himself  within  his  own  lines,  and 
both  are  careful,  as  St.  Augustine  warns  us,  "  not  to  make  rash  asser- 
tions, or  to  assert  what  is  not  known  as  known." 1  If  dissension  should 
arise  between  them,  here  is  the  rule  also  laid  down  by  St.  Augustine, 
for  the  theologian :  "  Whatever  they  can  really  demonstrate  to  be  true 
of  physical  nature  we  must  show  to  be  capable  of  reconciliation  with 
our  Scriptures;  and  whatever  they  assert  in  their  treatises  which  is 
contrary  to  these  Scriptures  of  ours,  that  is  to  Catholic  faith,  we  must 
either  prove  it  as  well  as  we  can  to  be  entirely  false,  or  at  all  events 
we  must,  without  the  smallest  hesitation,  believe  it  to  be  so." 2  To 
understand  how  just  is  the  rule  here  formulated  we  must  remember,  first, 
that  the  sacred  writers,  or,  to  speak  more  accurately,  the  Holy  'Ghost 
"  who  spoke  by  them,  did  not  intend  to  teach  men  these  things  [that  is 
to  say,  the  essential  nature  of  the  things  of  the  visible  universe],  things 
in  no  way  profitable  unto  salvation." 3  Hence  they  did  not  seek  to  pene- 
trate the  secrets  of  nature,  but  rather  described  and  dealt  with  things  in 
more  or  less  figurative  language,  or  in  terms  which  were  commonly  used 
at  the  time,  and  which  in  many  instances  are  in  daily  use  at  this  day, 
even  by  the  most  eminent  men  of  science.  Ordinary  speech  primarily 
and  properly  describes  what  comes  under  the  senses;  and  somewhat  in 
the  same  way  the  sacred  writers  —  as  the  Angelic  Doctor  also  reminds 
U3 —  "went  by  what  sensibly  appeared,"4  or  put  down  what  God, 
speaking  to  men,  signified,  in  the  way  men  could  understand  and  were 
accustomed  to. 

The  unshrinking  defense  of  the  Holy  Scripture,  however,  does  not. 
require  that  we  should  equally  uphold  all  the  opinions  which  each  of 
the  Fathers  or  the  more  recent  interpreters  have  put  forth  in  explain- 


1  In.  Gen.  op.  imperf.  ix.  30. 

2  De  Gen.  ad  litt.  i.  21,  41. 
8  S.  Aug.  ib.  ii.  9,  20. 

4  Summa  Theol.  p.  i.  q.  Ixxx.  a.  1  ad  3. 


HOLY    SCKIPTUKE  175 

ing  it;  for  it  may  be  that,  in  commenting  on  passages  where  physical 
matters  occur,  they  have  sometimes  expressed  the  ideas  of  their  own 
times,  and  thus  made  statements  which  in  these  days  have  been  aban- 
doned as  incorrect.  Hence,  in  their  interpretations,  we  must  carefully 
note  what  they  lay  down  as  belonging  to  faith,  or  as  intimately  con- 
nected with  faith.  — what  they  are  unanimous  in.  For  "  in  those  things 
which  do  not  come  under  the  obligation  of  faith,  the  saints  were  at 
liberty  to  hold  divergent  opinions,  just  as  we  ourselves  are,"1  according 
to  the  saying  of  St.  Thomas.  And  in  another  place  he  says  most  ad- 
mirably: "When  philosophers  are  agreed  upon  a  point,  and  it  is  not 
contrary  to  our  faith,  it  is  safer,  in  my  opinion,  neither  to  lay  down 
such  a  point  as  a  dogma  of  faith,  even  though  it  is  perhaps  so  pre- 
sented by  the  philosophers,  nor  to  reject  it  as  against  faith,  lest  we  thus 
give  to  the  wise  of  this  world  an  occasion  of  despising  our  faith." 2  The 
Catholic  interpreter,  although  he  should  show  that  those  facts  of  natu- 
ral science  which  investigators  affirm  to  be  now  quite  certain  are  not 
contrary  to  the  Scripture  rightly  explained,  must,  nevertheless,  always 
bear  in  mind  that  much  which  has  been  held  and  proved  as  certain  has 
afterwards  been  called  in  question  and  rejected.  And  if  writers  on 
physics  travel  outside  the  boundaries  of  their  own  branch,  and  carry 
their  erroneous  teaching  into  the  domain  of  philosophy,  let  them  be 
handed  over  to  philosophers  for  refutation. 

D.    History 

The  principles  here  laid  down  will  apply  to  cognate  sciences,  and  es- 
pecially to  history.  It  is  a  lamentable  fact  that  there  are  many  who 
with  great  labor  carry  out  and  publish  investigations  on  the  monuments 
of  antiquity,  the  manners  and  institutions  of  nations,  and  other  illus- 
trative subjects,  and  whose  chief  purpose  in  all  this  is  to  find  mistakes 
in  the  sacred  writings  and  so  to  shake  and  weaken  their  authority. 
Some  of  these  writers  display  not  only  extreme  hostility  but  the  greatest 
unfairness;  in  their  eyes  a  profane  book  or  ancient  document  is  ac- 
cepted without  hesitation,  whilst  the  Scripture,  if  they  only  find  in  it  a 
suspicion  of  error,  is  set  down  with  the  slightest  possible  discussion  as 
quite  untrustworthy.  It  is  true,  no  doubt,  that  copyists  have  made  mis- 
takes in  the  text  of  the  Bible;  this  question,  when  it  arises,  should  be 
carefully  considered  on  its  merits,  and  the  fact  not  too  easily  admitted, 
but  only  in  those  passages  where  the  proof  is  clear.  It  may  also  happen 
that  the  sense  of  a  passage  remains  ambiguous,  and  in  this  case  good 
hermeneutical  methods  will  greatly  assist  in  clearing  up  the  obscurity. 

INSPIRATION 

But  it  is  absolutely  wrong  and  forbidden  either  to  narrow  inspiration 
to  certain  parts  only  of  Holy  Scripture  or  to  admit  that  the  sacred 
writer  has  erred.  For  the  system  of  those  who,  in  order  to  rid  them- 
selves of  those  difficulties,  do  not  hesitate  to  concede  that  divine  in- 
spiration regards  the  things  of  faith  and  morals,  and  nothing  beyond, 

1  In  Sent.  ii.  Dist.  q.  i.  a.  3.  2  Opusc.  x. 


176    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

because  (as  they  wrongly  think)  in  a  question  of  the  truth  or  falsehood 
of  a  passage  we  should  consider  not  so  much  what  God  has  said  as  the 
reason  and  purpose  which  He  had  in  mind  when  saying  it  —  this  system 
cannot  be  tolerated.  For  all  the  books  which  the  Church  receives  as 
sacred  and  canonical  are  written  wholly  and  entirely,  with  all  their 
parts,  at  the  dictation  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  and  so  far  is  it  from  being 
possible  that  any  error  can  co-exist  with  inspiration,  that  inspiration 
not  only  is  essentially  incompatible  with  error,  but  excludes  and  rejects 
it  as  absolutely  and  necessarily  as  it  is  impossible  that  God  Himself,  the 
Supreme  Truth,  can  utter  that  which  is  not  true.  This  is  the  ancient 
and  unchanging  faith  of  the  Church,  solemnly  defined  in  the  Councils  of 
Florence  and  of  Trent,  and  finally  confirmed  and  more  expressly  formu- 
lated by  the  Council  of  the  Vatican.  These  are  the  words  of  the  last: 
"The  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  whole  and  entire,  with  all 
their  parts,  as  enumerated  by  the  decree  of  the  same  Council  (Trent) 
and  in  the  ancient  Latin  Vulgate,  are  to  be  received  as  sacred  and  canon- 
ical. And  the  Church  holds  them  as  sacred  and  canonical  not  because, 
having  been  composed  by  human  industry,  they  were  afterwards  ap- 
proved by  her  authority,  nor  only  because  they  contain  revelation  without 
error,  but  because,  having  been  written  under  the  inspiration  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  they  have  God  for  their  Author." *  Hence,  because  the  Holy 
Ghost  employed  men  as  His  instruments,  we  cannot,  therefore,  say  that 
it  was  these  inspired  instruments  who,  perchance,  have  fallen  into  error, 
and  not  the  primary  author.  For,  by  supernatural  power,  He  so  moved 
and  impelled  them  to  write  —  He  was  so  present  to  them  —  that  the 
things  which  He  ordered,  and  those  only,  they,  first,  rightly  understood, 
then  willed  faithfully  to  write  down,  and  finally  expressed  in  apt  words 
and  with  infallible  truth.  Otherwise,  it  could  not  be  said  that  He  was 
the  Author  of  the  entire  Scripture.  Such  has  always  been  the  persuasion 
of  the  Fathers.  "Therefore,"  says  St.  Augustine,  "since  they  wrote 
the  things  which  He  showed  and  uttered  to  them,  it  cannot  be  pretended 
that  He  is  not  the  writer;  for  His  members  executed  what  their  head 
dictated." 2  And  St.  Gregory  the  Great  thus  pronounces :  "  Most  super- 
fluous it  is  to  inquire  who  wrote  these  things  —  we  loyally  believe  the 
Holy  Ghost  to  be  the  author  of  the  Book.  He  wrote  it  who  dictated  it 
for  writing;  He  wrote  it  who  inspired  its  execution."3 

It  follows  that  those  who  maintain  that  an  error  is  possible  in  any 
genuine  passage  of  the  sacred  writings  either  pervert  the  Catholic  notion 
of  inspiration  or  make  God  the  author  of  such  error.  And  so  emphati- 
cally were  all  the  Fathers  and  Doctors  agreed  that  the  divine  writings, 
as  left  by  the  hagiographers,  are  free  from  all  error,  that  they  labored 
earnestly,  with  no  less  skill  than  reverence,  to  reconcile  with  each  other 
those  numerous  passages  which  seem  at  variance  —  the  very  passages 
which  in  a  great  measure  have  been  taken  up  by  the  "  higher  criticism  " ; 
for  they  were  unanimous  in  laying  it  down  that  those  writings,  in  their 
entirety  and  in  all  their  parts  were  equally  from  the  afflatus  of  Almighty 
God,  and  that  God,  speaking  by  the  sacred  writers,  could  not  set  down 
anything  that  was  not  true.  The  words  of  St.  Augustine  to  St.  Jerome 


1  Sess.  iii.  c.  ii.  de  Rev. 

a  De  consensu  Evangel.  1.  1,  c.  35.  *  Praef.  in  Job,  n.  2. 


HOLY    SCKIPTUKE  177 

may  sum  up  what  they  taught :  "  On  my  own  part  I  confess  to  your 
charity  that  it  is  only  to  those  books  of  Scripture  which  are  now  called 
canonical  that  I  have  learned  to  pay  such  honor  and  reverence  as  to 
believe  most  firmly  that  none  of  their  writers  has  fallen  into  any  error. 
And  if  in  these  books  I  meet  anything  which  seems  contrary  to  truth 
I  shall  not  hesitate  to  conclude  either  that  the  text  is  faulty,  or  that  the 
translator  has  not  expressed  the  meaning  of  the  passage,  or  that  I  myself 
do  not  understand."  * 

CATHOLIC  SCHOLARS 

But  to  undertake  fully  and  perfectly,  and  with  all  the  weapons  of  the 
best  science,  the  defense  of  the  Holy  Bible  is  far  more  than  can  be  looked 
for  from  the  exertions  of  commentators  and  theologians  alone.  It  is  an 
enterprise  in  which  we  have  a  right  to  expect  the  co-operation  of  all 
those  Catholics  who  have  acquired  reputation  in  any  branch  of  learning 
whatever.  As  in  the  past,  so  at  the  present  time,  the  Church  is  never 
without  the  graceful  support  of  her  accomplished  children;  may  their 
service  to  the  Faith  grow  and  increase!  For  there  is  nothing  which  We 
believe  to  be  more  needful  than  that  truth  should  find  defenders  more 
powerful  and  more  numerous  than  the  enemies  it  has  to  face;  nor  is 
there  anything  which  is  better  calculated  to  impress  the  masses  with 
respect  for  truth  than  to  see  it  boldly  proclaimed  by  learned  and  distin- 
guished men.  Moreover,  the  bitter  tongues  of  objectors  will  be  silenced, 
or  at  least  they  will  not  dare  to  insist  so  shamelessly  that  faith  is  the 
enemy  of  science,  when  they  see  that  scientific  men  of  eminence  in  their 
profession  show  towards  faith  the  most  marked  honor  and  respect.  See- 
ing, then,  that  those  can  do  so  much  for  the  advantage  of  religion  on 
whom  the  goodness  of  Almighty  God  has  bestowed,  together  with  the 
grace  of  the  faith,  great  natural  talent,  let  such  men,  in  this  bitter  con- 
flict of  which  the  Holy  Scripture  is  the  object,  select  each  of  them  the 
branch  of  study  most  suitable  to  his  circumstances,  and  endeavor  to 
excel  therein,  and  thus  be  prepared  to  repulse  with  credit  and  distinction 
the  assaults  on  the  Word  of  God.  And  it  is  Our  pleasing  duty  to  give 
deserved  praise  to  a  work  which  certain  Catholics  have  taken  up  —  that 
is  to  say,  the  formation  of  societies  and  the  contribution  of  considerable 
sums  of  money  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  studios  and  learned  men  with 
every  kind  of  help  and  assistance  in  carrying  out  complete  studies. 
Truly  an  excellent  fashion  of  investing  money,  and  well  suited  to  the 
times  in  which  we  live!  The  less  hope  of  public  patronage  there  is  for 
Catholic  study,  the  more  ready  and  the  more  abundant  should  be  the 
liberality  of  private  persons  —  those  to  whom  God  has  given  riches  thus 
willingly  making  use  of  their  means  to  safeguard  the  treasure  of  His 
revealed  doctrine. 

CAUTION  IN  DOUBT 

In  order  that  all  these  endeavors  and  exertions  may  really  prove  ad- 
vantageous to  the  cause  of  the  Bible,  let  scholars  keep  steadfastly  to  the 
principles  which  We  have  in  this  Letter  laid  down.  Let  them  loyally, 

1  Ep.  Ixxvii.  1,  et  crebrius  alibi. 


178    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

hold  that  God,  the  Creator  and  Ruler  of  all  things,  is  also  the  Author  of 
the  Scriptures  —  and  that,  therefore,  nothing  can  be  proved  either  by 
physical  science  or  archaeology  which  can  really  contradict  the  Scriptures. 
If,  then,  apparent  contradiction  be  met  with,  every  effort  should  be  made 
to  remove  it.  Judicious  theologians  and  commentators  should  be  con- 
sulted as  to  what  is  the  true  or  most  probable  meaning  of  the  passage  in 
discussion,  and  hostile  arguments  should  be  carefully  weighed.  Even  if 
the  difficulty  is  after  all  not  cleared  up  and  the  discrepancy  seems  to 
remain,  the  contest  must  not  be  abandoned;  truth  cannot  contradict 
truth,  and  we  may  be  sure  that  some  mistake  has  been  made  either  in 
the  interpretation  of  the  sacred  words  or  in  the  polemical  discussion 
itself;  and  if  no  such  mistake  can  be  detected,  we  must  then  suspend 
judgment  for  the  time  being.  There  have  been  objections  without  number 
perseveringly  directed  against  the  Scripture  for  many  a  long  year,  which 
have  been  proved  to  be  futile  and  are  now  never  heard  of;  and  not  in- 
frequently interpretations  have  been  placed  on  certain  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture (not  belonging  to  the  rule  of  faith  or  morals)  which  have  been  rec- 
tified by  more  careful  investigations.  As  time  goes  on,  mistaken  views 
die  and  disappear;  but  truth  remaineth  and  groweth  stronger  forever 
and  ever.1  Wherefore,  as  no  one  should  be  so  presumptuous  as"  to  think 
that  he  understands  the  whole  of  the  Scripture,  in  which  St.  Augustine 
himself  confessed  that  there  was  more  that  he  did  not  know  than  that  he 
knew,2  so,  if  he  should  come  on  anything  that  seems  incapable  of  solution, 
he  must  take  to  heart  the  cautious  rule  of  the  same  holy  doctor :  "  It  is 
better  even  to  be  oppressed  by  unknown  but  useful  signs  than  to  inter- 
pret them  uselessly,  and  thus  to  throw  off  the  yoke  only  to  be  caught  in 
the  trap  of  error." 3 

As  to  those  who  pursue  the  subsidiary  studies  of  which  We  have 
spoken,  if  they  honestly  and  modestly  follow  the  counsels  We  have  given 
—  if  by  their  pen  and  their  voice  they  make  their  studies  profitable 
against  the  enemies  of  truth,  and  useful  in  saving  the  young  from  the 
loss  of  their  faith  —  they  may  justly  congratulate  themselves  on  their 
worthy  service  to  the  sacred  writings,  and  on  affording  to  Catholicism 
that  assistance  which  the  Church  has  a  right  to  expect  from  the  piety 
and  learning  of  her  children. 

CONCLUSION 

Such,  Venerable  Brethren,  are  the  admonitions  and  the  instructions 
which,  by  the  help  of  God,  We  have  thought  it  well,  at  the  present  mo- 
ment, to  offer  to  you  on  the  study  of  Holy  Scripture.  It  will  now  be 
your  province  to  see  that  what  We  have  said  be  observed  and  put  in 
practice  with  all  due  reverence  and  exactness;  that  so  We  may  prove 
our  gratitude  to  God  for  the  communication  to  man  of  the  words  of  His 
wisdom,  and  that  all  the  good  results  so  much  to  be  desired  may  be  real- 
ized, especially  as  they  affect  the  training  of  the  students  of  the  Church, 
which  is  our  own  great  solicitude  and  the  Church's  hope.  Exert  your- 
selve  with  willing  alacrity,  and  use  your  authority  and  your  persuasion 

1  III  Esdr.  iv.  38. 

2  Ad  lanuar.  ep.  Iv.  21.  *  De  doctr.  chr.  iii.  9,  18. 


HOLY    SCRIPTURE  179 

in  order  that  these  studies  may  be  held  in  just  regard  and  may  flourish 
in  seminaries  and  in  educational  institutions  which  are  under  your  juris- 
diction. Let  them  flourish  in  completeness  and  in  happy  success,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Church,  in  accordance  with  the  salutary  teaching 
and  example  of  the  holy  Fathers,  and  the  laudable  traditions  of  anti- 
quity; and,  as  time  goes  on,  let  them  be  widened  and  extended  as  the 
interests  and  glory  of  truth  may  require  —  the  interests  of  that  Catholic 
truth  which  comes  from  above,  the  never-failing  source  of  man's  salvation. 
Finally,  We  admonish  with  paternal  love  all  students  and  ministers 
of  the  Church  always  to  approach  the  sacred  writings  with  reverence 
and  piety;  for  it  is  impossible  to  attain  to  the  profitable  understand- 
ing thereof  unless  the  arrogance  of  "  earthly "  science  be  laid  aside, 
and  there  be  excited  in  the  heart  the  holy  desire  for  that  wisdom  "  which 
is  from  above."  In  this  way  the  intelligence  which  is  once  admitted  to 
these  sacred  studies,  and  thereby  illuminated  and  strengthened,  will  ac- 
quire a  marvelous  facility  in  detecting  and  avoiding  the  fallacies  of 
human  science,  and  in  gathering  and  using  for  eternal  salvation  all  that 
is  valuable  and  precious;  whilst,  at  the  same  time,  the  heart  will  grow 
warm,  and  will  strive,  with  ardent  longing,  to  advance  in  virtue  and  in 
divine  love.  Blessed  are  they  who  examine  His  testimonies;  they  shall 
seek  Him  with  their  whole  heart* 

And  now,  filled  with  hope  in  the  divine  assistance,  and  trusting  to 
your  pastoral  solicitude  —  as  a  pledge  of  heavenly  grace,  and  a  sign  of 
Our  special  good-will  —  to  you  all,  and  to  the  clergy,  and  to  the  whole 
flock  intrusted  to  you,  We  lovingly  impart  in  Our  Lord  the  Apostolic 
Benediction. 


SYLLABUS    OF   ERRORS 
CONDEMNED  BY  THE  S.  CONGB.  OF  THE  INQUISITION,  JULY  3,  1907. 

WITH  truly  lamentable  results,  our  age,  intolerant  of  all  check  in 
its  investigations  of  the  ultimate  causes  of  things,  not  unfre- 
quently  follows  what  is  new  in  such  a  way  as  to  reject  the  legacy,  as  it 
were,  of  the  human  race,  and  thus  fall  into  the  most  grievous  errors. 
These  errors  will  be  all  the  more  pernicious  when  they  affect  sacred  dis- 
ciplines, the  interpretation  of  the  Sacred  Scripture,  the  principal  mys- 
teries of  the  faith.  It  is  to  be  greatly  deplored  that  among  Catholics 
also  not  a  few  writers  are  to  be  found  who,  crossing  the  boundaries  fixed 
by  the  Fathers  and  by  the  Church  herself,  seek  out,  on  the  plea  of  higher 
intelligence  and  in  the  name  of  historical  considerations,  that  progress  of 
dogmas  which  is  in  reality  the  corruption  of  the  same. 

But  lest  errors  of  this  kind,  which  are  being  daily  spread  among  the 
faithful,  should  strike  root  in  their  minds  and  corrupt  the  purity  of  the 
faith,  it  has  pleased  His  Holiness  Pius  X,  by  Divine  Providence  Pope, 
that  the  chief  among  them  should  be  noted  and  condemned  through  the 
office  of  this  Holy  Roman  and  Universal  Inquisition. 


1  Ps.  cxviii.  2. 


180    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Wherefore,  after  a  most  diligent  investigation,  and  after  having  taken 
the  opinion  of  the  Reverend  Consultors,  the  Most  Eminent  and  Reverend 
Lords  Cardinals,  the  general  inquisitors  in  matters  of  faith  and  morals, 
decided  that  the  following  propositions  are  to  be  condemned  and  pro- 
scribed, as  they  are,  by  this  general  Decree,  condemned  and  proscribed: 

1.  The  ecclesiastical  law,  which  prescribes  that  books  regarding  the 
Divine  Scriptures  are  subject  to  previous  censorship,  does  not  extend  to 
critical  scholars  or  students  of  the  scientific  exegesis  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament. 

2.  The  Church's  interpretation  of  the  Sacred  Books  is  not  indeed  to  be 
condemned,  but  it  is  subject  to  the  more  accurate  judgment  and  to  the 
correction  of  the  exegetes. 

3.  From  the  ecclesiastical  judgments  and  censures  passed  against  free 
and  more  scientific    (cultiorem)    exegesis,  it  may  be  gathered  that  the 
faith  proposed  by  the  Church  contradicts  history  and  that  the  Catholic 
dogmas   cannot  be  reconciled  with  the  true   origins   of  the   Christian 
religion. 

4.  The  magisterium  of  the  Church  cannot,  even  through  dogmatic  defi- 
nitions, determine  the  genuine  sense  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures.    , 

5.  Since  in  the  deposit  of  the  faith  only  revealed  truths  are  contained, 
under  no  respect  does  it  appertain  to  the  Church  to  pass  judgment  con- 
cerning the  assertions  of  human  sciences. 

6.  In  defining  truths  the  Church  learning   (discens)   and  the  Church 
teaching  (docens)  collaborate  in  such  a  way  that  it  only  remains  for  the 
Church  docens  to  sanction  the  opinions  of  the  Church  discens. 

7.  The  Church,  when  it  proscribes  errors,  cannot  exact  from  the  faith- 
ful any  internal  assent  by  which  the  judgments  issued  by  it  are  embraced. 

8.  Those  who  treat  as  of  no  weight  the  condemnations  passed  by  the 
Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Index  or  by  the  other  Roman  Congregations 
are  free  from  all  blame. 

9.  Those  who  believe  that  God  is  really  the  author  of  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
ture display  excessive  simplicity  or  ignorance. 

10.  The  inspiration  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  consists  in  the 
fact  that   the   Israelite  writers  have   handed   down   religious   doctrines 
under  a  peculiar  aspect,  either  little  or  not  at  all  known  to  the  Gentiles. 

11.  Divine  inspiration  is  not  to  be  so  extended  to  the  whole  of  Sacred 
Scriptures  that  it  renders  its  parts,  all  and  single,  immune  from  all 
error. 

12.  The  exegete,  if  he  wishes  to  apply  himself  usefully  to  Biblical 
studies,  must  first  of  all  put  aside  all  preconceived  opinions  concerning 
the  supernatural  origin  of  the  Sacred  Scripture,  and  interpret  it  not 
otherwise  than  other  merely  human  documents. 

13.  The  evangelists  themselves  and  the  Christians  of  the  second  and 
third  generation  arranged  (digesserunt)  artificially  the  evangelical  par- 
ables, and  in  this  way  gave  an  explanation  of  the  scanty  fruit  of  the 
preaching  of  Christ  among  the  Jews. 

14.  In  a  great  many  narrations  the  evangelists  reported  not  so  much 
things  that  are  true  as  things  which  even  though  false  they  judged  to  be 
more  profitable  for  their  readers. 

15.  The  Gospels  until  the  time  the  canon  was  defined  and  constituted 


HOLY    SCEIPTUBE  181 

were  increased  by  additions  and  corrections;    hence  in  them  there  re- 
mained of  the  doctrine  of  Christ  only  a  faint  and  uncertain  trace. 

16.  The  narrations  of  John  are  not  properly  history,  but  the  mystical 
contemplation  of  the  Gospel;    the  discourses  contained  in  his  Gospel  are 
theological  meditations,  devoid  of  historical  truth  concerning  the  mys- 
tery of  salvation. 

17.  The  Fourth  Gospel  exaggerated  miracles  not  only  that  the  won- 
derful might  stand  out  but  also  that  they  might  become  more  suitable 
for  signifying  the  work  and  the  glory  of  the  Word  Incarnate. 

18.  John    claims    for   himself   the    quality   of   a   witness    concerning 
Christ;     but  in  reality  he  is  only  a  distinguished  witness  of  the  Chris- 
tian life,  or  of  the  life  of  Christ  in  the  Church,  at  the  close  of  the  first 
century. 

19.  Heterodox  exegetes  have  expressed  the  true  sense  of  the  Scrip- 
tures more  faithfully  than  Catholic  exegetes. 

20.  Revelation  could  be  nothing  but  the  consciousness   acquired  by 
man  of  his  relation  with  God. 

21.  Revelation,  constituting  the  object  of  Catholic  faith,  was  not  com- 
pleted with  the  Apostles. 

22.  The   dogmas   which  the   Church  gives  out   as   revealed,   are   not 
truths  which  have  fallen  down  from  heaven,  but  are  an  interpretation  of 
religious  facts,  which  the  human  mind  has  acquired  by  laborious  effort. 

23.  Opposition  may  and  actually  does  exist  between  the  facts  which 
are  narrated  in  Scripture  and  the  dogmas  of  the  Church  which  rest  on 
them;   so  that  the  critic  may  reject  as  false  facts  which  the  Church  holds 
as  most  certain. 

24.  The  exegete  is  not  to  be  blamed  for  constructing  {remises  from 
which  it  follows  that  the  dogmas  are  historically  false  or  doubtful,  pro- 
vided he  does  not  directly  deny  the  dogmas  themselves. 

25.  The  assent  of  faith  rests  ultimately  on  a  mass  of  probabilities. 

1  26.  The  dogmas  of  faith  are  to  be  held  only  according  to  their  prac- 
tical sense,  that  is,  as  preceptive  norms  of  conduct,  but  not  as  norms  of 
believing. 

27.  The  Divinity  of  Jesus  Christ  is  not  proved  from  the  Gospels;    but 
is  a  dogma  which  the  Christian  conscience  has  derived  from  the  notion 
of  the  Messias. 

28.  Jesus,  while  He  was  exercising  His  Ministry,  did  not  speak  with 
the  object  of  teaching  that  He  was  the  Messias,  nor  did  His  miracles  tend 
to  prove  this. 

29.  It  is  lawful  to  believe  that  the  Christ  of  history  is  far  inferior  to 
the  Christ  who  is  the  object  of  faith. 

30.  In  all  the  evangelical  texts  the  name  Son  of  God  is  equivalent 
only  to  Messias,  and  does  not  at  all  signify  that  Christ  is  the  true  and 
natural  Son  of  God. 

31.  The  doctrine  concerning  Christ  taught  by  Paul,  John,  the  Coun- 
cils of  Nicea,  Ephesus  and  Chalcedon,  is  not  that  which  Jesus  taught, 
but  that  which-  the  Christian  conscience  conceived  concerning  Jesus. 

32.  It  is  not  possible  to  reconcile  the  natural  sense  of  the  Gospel  texts 
with  the  sense  taught  by  our  theologians  concerning  the  conscience  and 
the  infallible  knowledge  of  Jesus  Christ. 


182    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE   BIBLE 

33.  It  is  evident  to  everybody  who  is  not  led  by  preconceived  opinions 
that  either  Jesus  professed  an  error  concerning  the  immediate  Messianic 
coming,  or  that  the  greater  part  of  His  doctrine  as  contained  in  the 
Gospels  is  destitute  of  authenticity. 

34.  The  critic  cannot  ascribe  to  Christ  a  knowledge  circumscribed  by 
no  limits  except  on  a  hypothesis  which  cannot  be  historically  conceived 
and  which  is  repugnant  to  the  moral  sense,  viz.,  that  Christ  as  man  had 
the  knowledge  of  God  and  yet  was  unwilling  to  communicate  the  knowl- 
edge of  a  great  many  things  to  His  Disciples  and  to  posterity. 

35.  Christ  had  not  always  the  consciousness  of  His  Messianic  dignity. 

36.  The  Resurrection  of  the  Saviour  is  not  properly  a  fact  of  the  his- 
torical order,  but  a  fact  of  merely  supernatural  order,  neither  demon- 
strated nor  demonstrable,  which  the  Christian  conscience  gradually  de- 
rived from  other  facts. 

37.  Faith  in  the  Resurrection  of  Christ  was  in  the  beginning  not  so 
much  in  the  fact  itself  of  the  Resurrection,  as  in  the  immortal  life  of 
Christ  with  God. 

38.  The  doctrine  of  the  expiatory  death  of  Christ  is  not  Evangelical 
but  Pauline. 

39.  The  opinions  concerning  the  origin  of  the  sacraments  with  which 
the  Fathers  of  Trent  were  imbued  and  which  certainly  influenced  their 
dogmatic  canons  are  very  different  from  those  which  now  rightly  obtain 
among  historians  who  examine  into  Christianity. 

40.  The  sacraments  had  their  origin  in  the  fact  that  the  Apostles  and 
their  successors,  swayed  and  moved  by  circumstances  and  events,  inter- 
preted some  idea  or  intention  of  Christ. 

41.  The  sacraments  are  merely  intended  to  bring  before  the  mind  of 
man  the  ever-beneficent  presence  of  the  Creator. 

42.  The  Christian  community  imposed  (iuduxit)  the  necessity  of  bap- 
tism, adopting  it  as  a  necessary  rite,  and  adding  to  it  the  obligations 
of  the  Christian  profession. 

43.  The  practice  of  conferring  baptism  on  infants  was  a  disciplinary 
evolution,  which  became  one  of  the  causes  why  the  sacrament  was  divided 
into  two,  viz. :    baptism  and  penance. 

44.  There  is  nothing  to  prove  that  the  rite  of  the  sacrament  of  con- 
firmation was  employed  by  the  Apostles:    but  the  formal  distinction  of 
the  two  sacraments,  baptism  and  confirmation,  does  not  belong  to  the 
history  of  primitive  Christianity. 

45.  Not  everything  which  Paul  narrates  concerning  the  institution  of 
the  Eucharist  (I  Cor.  xi.  23-25)  is  to  be  taken  historically. 

46.  In  the  primitive  Church  the  conception  of  the  Christian  sinner 
reconciled  by  the  authority  of  the  Church  did  not  exist,  but  it  was  only 
very  slowly  that  the  Church  accustomed  itself  to  this  conception.     Nay, 
even  after  penance  was  recognized  as  an  institution  of  the  Church,  it 
was  not  called  a  sacrament,  for  it  would  be  held  as  an  ignominious 
sacrament. 

47.  The  words  of  the  Lord:    Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost;  ivhose  sins  ye 
shall  forgive  they  are  forgiven  them,  and  whose  sins  ye  shall  retain  they 
are  retained   (John  xx.  22,  23)   do  not  at  all  refer  to  the  sacrament  of 
penance,  whatever  the  Fathers  of  Trent  may  have  been  pleased  to  say. 


HOLY   SCKIPTUBE  183 

48.  James  in  his  Epistle  (v.  14  and  15)  did  not  intend  to  promulgate 
a  sacrament  of  Christ,  but  to  commend  a  pious  custom,  and  if  in  this 
custom  he  happens  to  distinguish  (cernit)  a  means  of  grace,  it  is  not  in 
that  rigorous  manner  in  which  it  was  received  by  the  theologians  who  laid 
down  the  notion  and  the  number  of  the  sacraments. 

49.  The  Christian  Supper  gradually  assuming  the  nature  of  a  litur- 
gical action,  those  who  were  wont  to  preside  at  the  Supper  acquired  the 
sacerdotal  character. 

50.  The  elders  who  filled  the  office  of  watching  over  the  gatherings  of 
the  faithful,  were  instituted  by  the  Apostles  as  priests  or  bishops  to  pro- 
vide for  the  necessary  ordering   (ordinationi)    of  the  increasing  oppor- 
tunities, not  properly  for  perpetuating  the  Apostolic  mission  and  power. 

51.  It  is  not  possible  that  matrimony  could  have  become  a  sacrament 
of  the  new  Law  until  later  in  the  Church;    for  in  order  that  matrimony 
should  be  held  as  a  sacrament  it  was  necessary  that  a  full  theological 
development    (explwatio)    of  the  doctrine  of  grace  and  the  sacraments 
should  first  take  place. 

52.  It  was  foreign  to  the  mind  of  Christ  to  found  a  Church  as  a  So- 
ciety which  was  to  last  on  the  earth  for  a  long  course  of  centuries ;    nay, 
in  the  mind  of  Christ  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  together  with  the  end  of 
the  world  was  about  to  come  immediately. 

53.  The  organic  constitution  of  the  Church  is  not  immutable;    but 
Christian  society,  like  human  society,  is  subject  to  perpetual  evolution. 

54.  Dogmas,  sacraments,  hierarchy,  both  as  regards  the  notion  of  them 
and  the  reality,  are  but  interpretations  and  evolutions  of  the  Christian 
intelligence  which  by  external  increments  have  increased  and  perfected 
the  little  germ  latent  in  the  Gospel. 

55.  Simon  Peter  never  even  suspected  that  the  primacy  in  the  Church 
was  intrusted  to  him  by  Christ. 

56.  The   Roman   Church   became   the   head   of   all   the   churches   not 
through  the  ordinance  of  Divine  Providence  but  through  merely  political 
conditions. 

57.  The  Church  has  shown  herself  to  be  hostile  to  the  progress  of 
natural  and  theological  sciences. 

58.  Truth  is  not  any  more  immutable  than  man  himself,  since  it  is 
evolved  with  him,  in  him,  and  through  him. 

59.  Christ  did  not  teach  a  determinate  body  of  doctrine  applicable  to 
all  times  and  to  all  men,  but  rather  inaugurated  a  religious  movement 
adapted  or  to  be  adapted  for  different  times  and  place. 

60.  Christian  doctrine  in  its  origin  was  Judaic,  but  through  succes- 
sive evolutions  became  first  Pauline,  then  Joannine,  and  finally  Hellenic 
and  universal. 

61.  It  may  be  said  without  paradox  that  there  is  no  chapter  of  Scrip- 
ture, from  the  first  of  Genesis  to  the  last  of  the  Apocalypse,  which  con- 
tains a  doctrine  absolutely  identical  with  that  which  the  Church  teaches 
on  the  same  matter,  and  that,  therefore,  no  chapter  of  Scripture  has  the 
same  sense  for  the  critic  and  for  the  theologian. 

62.  The  chief  articles  of  the  Apostolic  Symbol  had  not  for  the  Chris- 
tians of  the  first  ages  the  same  sense  that  they  have  for  the  Christians 
of  our  time. 


184    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

63.  The  Church  shows  itself  unequal  to  the  task  of  efficaciously  main- 
taining evangelical  ethics,  because  it  obstinately  adheres  to  immutable 
doctrines  which  cannot  be  reconciled  with  modern  progress. 

64.  The  progress  of  science  involves  a  remodeling    (ut  reformentur) 
of  the  conceptions  of  Christian  doctrine  concerning  God,  Creation,  Rev- 
elation, the  Person  of  the  Incarnate  Word,  Redemption. 

65.  Modern  Catholicism  cannot  be  reconciled  with  true  science  unless 
it  be  transformed  into  a  non-dogmatic  Christianity,  that  is  into  a  broad 
and  liberal  Protestantism. 

And  on  the  following  Thursday,  the  fourth  day  of  the  same  month 
and  year,  an  accurate  report  of  all  this  having  been  made  to  Our  Most 
Holy  Lord  Pope  Pius  X,  His  Holiness  approved  and  confirmed  the  De- 
cree of  the  Most  Eminent  Fathers,  and  ordered  that  the  propositions 
above  enumerated,  all  and  several,  be  held  by  all  as  condemned  and 
proscribed. 

PETER  PALOMBELLI, 

Notary  of  the  H.  R.  U.  I. 


FEOM  THE   MOTU  PEOPEIO   OF   PIUS   X 

ON  THE  DECISIONS  OF  THE  BIBLICAL  COMMISSION  AND  ON  THE  CEN- 
SURES AND  PENALTIES  AFFECTING  THOSE  WHO  NEGLECT  TO  OBSERVE 
THE  PRESCRIPTIONS  AGAINST  THE  ERRORS  OF  THE  MODERNISTS 

IN  his  Encyclical  Letter  Providentissimus  Deus,  given  on  November  19, 
1893,  our  predecessor,  Leo  XIII,  of  immortal  memory,  after  describ- 
ing the  dignity  of  the  Sacred  Scripture  and  commending  the  study  of  it, 
set  forth  the  laws  which  govern  the  proper  study  of  the  Holy  Bible; 
and  having  proclaimed  the  divinity  of  these  books  against  the  errors  and 
calumnies  of  the  rationalists,  he  at  the  same  time  defended  them  against 
the  false  teachings  of  what  is  known  as  the  higher  criticism,  which,  as 
the  Pontiff  most  wisely  wrote,  are  clearly  nothing  but  the  commentaries 
of  rationalism  derived  from  a  misuse  of  philology  and  kindred  studies. 

Our  predecessor,  too,  seeing  that  the  danger  was  constantly  on  the  in- 
crease, and  desiring  to  provide  against  the  consequences  of  the  propa- 
gation of  rash  and  erroneous  views,  by  his  Apostolic  Letters  Vigilantice 
studiique  memores,  given  on  October  29,  1902,  established  a  Pontifical 
Council,  or  Commission  on  Biblical  Matters,  composed  of  a  number  of 
cardinals  of  the  Holy  Roman  Church,  distinguished  for  their  learning  and 
prudence,  adding  to  these,  under  the  title  of  consultors,  a  considerable 
body  of  men  in  sacred  orders,  chosen  from  among  the  learned  in  theol- 
ogy and  in  the  Holy  Bible,  of  various  nationalities  and  differing  in  their 
methods  and  views  concerning  exegetical  studies.  In  this  the  Pontiff  had 
in  mind,  as  an  advantage  admirably  adapted  for  the  promotion  of  study 
and  for  the  time  in  which  we  live,  that  in  this  commission  there  should 
be  the  fullest  freedom  for  proposing,  examining,  and  judging  all  opin- 
ions whatsoever;  and  the  letter  also  ordained  that  the  cardinals  of  the 
commission  were  not  to  come  to  any  definite  decision  until  they  had 
taken  cognizance  of  and  examined  the  arguments  on  both  sides,  omitting 


HOLY    SCEIPTUEE  185 

nothing  which  might  serve  to  show  in  the  clearest  light  the  true  and 
genuine  state  of  the  Biblical  questions  proposed  for  solution;  and  when 
all  this  had  been  done,  that  the  decisions  reached  should  be  submitted 
for  approval  to  the  Supreme  Pontiff,  and  then  promulgated. 

After  mature  examination  and  the  most  diligent  consultations,  cer- 
tain decisions  have  been  happily  given  by  the  Pontifical  Commission  on 
the  Bible,  and  these  of  a  kind  very  useful  for  the  proper  promotion  and 
direction  on  safe  lines  of  Biblical  studies.  But  we  observe  that  some 
persons,  unduly  prone  to  opinions  and  methods  tainted  by  pernicious 
novelties,  and  excessively  devoted  to  that  principle  of  false  liberty,  which 
is  really  immoderate  license,  and  in  sacred  studies  proves  itself  to  be 
most  insidious  and  a  fruitful  source  of  the  worst  evils  against  the  purity 
of  the  faith,  have  not  received  and  do  not  receive  these  decisions  with 
the  proper  obedience. 

Wherefore  we  find  it  necessary  to  declare  and  prescribe,  as  we  do  now 
declare  and  expressly  prescribe,  that  all  are  bound  in  conscience  to  sub- 
mit to  the  decisions,  regarding  doctrine,  of  the  Biblical  Commission, 
which  have  been  given  in  the  past  and  which  shall  be  given  in  the  future, 
in  the  same  way  as  to  the  Decrees  of  the  Roman  Congregations  approved 
by  the  Pontiff;  nor  can  all  those  escape  the  note  of  disobedience  or  te- 
merity, and  consequently  of  grave  sin,  who  in  speech  or  writing  impugn 
these  decisions;  and  this  besides  the  scandal  they  give  and  the  other 
reasons  for  which  they  may  be  responsible  before  God,  for  other  temerities 
and  errors  usually  accompanying  such  oppositions. 

Moreover  to  check  the  daily  increasing  audacity  of  a  great  many 
modernists  who  are  endeavoring  by  all  kinds  of  sophistry  and  devices  to 
detract  from  the  force  and  efficacy  not  only  of  the  Decree  Lamentabili 
sane  exitu,  issued,  by  our  order,  by  the  Holy  Roman  and  Universal 
Inquisition  of  July  3  of  the  present  year,  but  also  of  our  Encyclical 
Letters  Pascendi  dominici  gregis  given  on  September  8  of  this  same  year, 
we  do  by  our  Apostolic  authority  repeat  and  confirm  both  that  Decree  of 
the  Supreme  Sacred  Congregation  and  those  Encyclical  Letters  of  Ours, 
adding  the  penalty  of  excommunication  against  contradictors;  and  this 
we  declare  and  decree,  that  should  anybody,  which  may  God  forbid,  be 
so  rash  as  to  defend  any  one  of  the  propositions,  opinions  or  teachings 
condemned  in  these  documents,  he  falls  ipso  facto  under  the  censure  con- 
tained under  the  Chapter  Docentes  of  the  Constitution  Apostolicce  Sedis, 
which  is  first  among  the  excommunications  latce  sententiw  simply  re- 
served to  the  Roman  Pontiff.  This  excommunication  is  to  be  understood 
as  salvis  pcenis,  which  may  be  incurred  by  those  who  have  violated  in  any 
way  the  said  documents,  as  propagators  and  defenders  of  heresies,  when 
their  propositions,  opinions  or  teachings  are  heretical,  as  has  happened 
more  than  once  in  the  case  of  the  adversaries  of  both  these  documents, 
especially  when  they  advocate  the  errors  of  modernism,  that  is  the  syn- 
thesis of  all  heresies. 

Wherefore,  we  again  and  most  earnestly  exhort  the  ordinaries  of  the 
dioceses  and  the  heads  of  religious  congregations  to  use  the  utmost  vigi- 
lance over  teachers,  and  first  of  all  in  the  seminaries;  and  should  they 
find  any  of  them  imbued  with  the  errors  of  the.  modernists,  and  eager 
for  what  is  new  and  noxious,  or  lacking  in  docility  to  the  prescriptions 


186    HANDBOOK  FOB  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

of  the  Apostolic  See,  no  matter  how  they  may  be  published,  let  them  ab- 
solutely forbid  the  teaching  office  to  such ;  so,  too,  let  them  exclude  from 
sacred  orders  those  young  men  who  give  the  very  faintest  reason  for 
doubt  that  they  hold  the  condemned  doctrines  and  the  pernicious  novel- 
ties. We  exhort  them  also  to  take  diligent  care  to  put  an  end  to  those 
books  and  other  writings,  now  growing  exceedingly  numerous,  which  con- 
tain opinions  or  tendencies  of  the  kind  condemned  in  the  Encyclical  Let- 
ters and  Decree  above  mentioned;  let  them  see  to  it  that  these  publica- 
tions are  removed  from  Catholic  publishing  houses,  and  especially  from 
the  hands  of  students  and  the  clergy.  By  doing  this  they  will  at  the 
same  time  be  promoting  real  and  solid  education,  which  should  always 
be  a  subject  of  the  greatest  solicitude  for  those  who  exercise  sacred 
authority. 

All  these  things  we  will  and  order  to  be  sanctioned  and  established  by 
our  Apostolic  authority,  aught  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

Given  at  Rome  at  St.  Peter's  November  18,  1907,  in  the  fifth  year  of 
our  Pontificate. 

PIUS   X,   POPE 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  BIBLE 

1.   GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 

FEOM  very  early  times  the  Holy  Scriptures  have  been  read, 
studied  and  expounded  both  by  Jews  and  Christians,,  by 
Catholics  and  non-Catholics.  The  results  of  all  their  exertions 
are,  however,  very  various  and  often  in  direct  antagonism  to  one 
another.  As  it  is  impossible  for  two  or  more  opinions  to  be 
correct  at  the  same  time,  it  follows  that  many  mistakes  have  been 
made. 

Whoever  desires  not  to  err  in  studying  the  Scriptures  must 
not  separate  them  from  the  Church,  but  regard  them  as  be- 
longing to  the  Church,  and  therefore  he  must  recognize  the 
following  truths : 

1.  Holy    Scripture    is    God's    word.     But  as,  in  accordance 
with  -our  Lord's  commission   (Matt,  xxviii.  19),  it  is  the  task 
of  the  Church  to  make  known  to  men  the  whole  of  God's  reve- 
lation, Scripture  is  the  property  of  the  Church. 

2.  The  Church  has  preserved  Holy  Scripture  in  its  integrity 
and  in  all  its  parts  free  from  falsification. 

3.  The  Church  alone  possesses  the  correct  interpretation  of 
Scripture. 

The  statement  and  proof  of  the  first  two  truths  form  the  sub- 
ject of  the  historical  and  critical  introduction  to  Holy  Scripture, 
whereas  the  third  is  the  foundation  of  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

Historical  Survey 

What  we  call  the  historical  and  critical  introduction  to  Holy 
Scripture  is  a  product  of  recent  times,  and  it  has  become  an  im- 
portant branch  of  knowledge  only  in  the  last  hundred  years 
or  thereabouts. 

In  early  Christian  times  there  was  no  particular  reason  for 
carrying  on  biblical  study  as  we  understand  it.  People  believed 


188    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

and  accepted  the  living  traditions,  as  they  were  still  near  the 
time  when  the  sacred  books  were  written.  The  heathen,  too,  did 
not,  as  a  rule,  meddle  with  the  sacred  books  of  the  Christians. 
Celsus  aimed  his  attacks  upon  their  contents,  i.  e.  upon  the  doc- 
trines of  Christianity,  and  so  did  Lucian.  Much  valuable  ma- 
terial for  our  present  preliminary  studies  is  scattered  about  in 
the  works  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  and  of  ecclesiastical 
writers,  particularly  in  Origen  (185-254),  Eusebius  of  Ca3sarea 
(270-338),  Saint  Jerome  (331-420,  especially  in  his  De  Viris 
Illustribus  and  in  the  introductions  to  his  Latin  translation 
of  the  Bible)  and  Saint  Augustine"  (354-430).  Cassiodorus,  a 
contemporary  of  some  of  the  Fathers,  who  was  first  a  states- 
man and  afterwards  an  abbot  (c.  470-560),  wrote  the  Isagoge,1 
a  special  work  on  the  Bible,  for  his  religious,  and  the  African 
lawyer,  Junilius,  wrote  a  similar  book  about  the  year  550,  basing 
it  on  Theodorus  of  Mopsuestia. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  not  much  attention  was  paid  to  his- 
torical and  linguistic  studies,  and  for  this  reason  the  great 
medieval  theologians  are  not  of  much  assistance  in  supplying 
the  sort  of  material  we  need.  It  is,  however,  not  true  that  Holy 
Scripture  was  unknown  at  that  time.  On  the  contrary,  the 
Bible  was  the  foundation  of  almost  all  their  learned  works,  and 
that  the  people  were  familiar  with  it  is  proved  by  the  numerous 
works  of  art,  e.  g.  stained-glass  windows,  in  churches  dating 
back  to  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Bible  was  the  first  book  that  ever 
appeared  in  print  (1450),  and  by  1500  it  had  been  printed  over 
100  times  (Janssen,  Gesch.  d.  d.  Volkes,  I,  p.  18).  In  the 
Middle  Ages  the  Bible  was  studied  with  particular  zeal  in  Spain, 
where  the  Christians  were  obliged  to  defend  their  faith  against 
Mahometans  and  Jews.  These  circumstances  prompted  the  com- 
position of  the  Pugio  fidei  adv.  Mauros  et  Judceos  by  Kaimundus 
Martini,  and  of  many  works  by  the  Franciscan  Eaimundus 
Sullus.  Another  Franciscan,  Nicholas  of  Lyra  (died  1340), 
collected  and  arranged  in  the  prefaces  to  his  postils  such  infor- 
mation about  Holy  Scripture  as  then  existed. 

1  Migne,  Patres  Lat.,  Vol.  LXX.  The  word  Isagoge  is  used  in  the 
same  sense  as  by  Cassiodorus,  also  by  the  Dominican  Santes  Pagninus, 
1536. 


INTRODUCTION   TO    THE   BIBLE  189 

The  Dominican  Sixtus  of  Siena  (died  1599)  in  his  Bibli- 
otheca  Sancta,  essayed  to  defend  in  an  intelligent  manner  the 
teaching  of  the  Council  of  Trent  regarding  Holy  Scripture 
against  the  Reformers.  Cardinal  Bellarmine,  S.J.,  wrote  the 
first  book  (De  Verio  Dei)  of  his  great  work  De  Controversiis 
Fidei  with  a  similar  intention.  Many  of  the  numerous  com- 
mentators who  followed  him,  especially  Salmeron,  Serarius  and 
Bonfrerius,  wrote  works  that  were  to  be  introductory  to  the 
study  of  the  Bible. 

What  we  at  present  call  historical  and  critical  study  intro- 
ductory to  Holy  Scripture  was  begun  by  Richard  Simon,  priest 
of  the  Oratory  (died  1712), *  who  opposed  the  pantheist  Spinoza, 
and  Calmet,  a  Benedictine  (died  1757). 

2.   ARRANGEMENT  OF  AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE  BIBLE 

An  introduction  to  the  Bible  may  suitably  be  divided  into 
the  following  headings : 

1.  The   origin   of  the  sacred   books,   or  Holy   Scripture  as 
God's  word,  —  first  and  fundamental  part. 

2.  The  collection  of  the  sacred  books,  or  Holy  Scripture  as  a 
whole,  —  second  part,  general  introduction. 

3.  Component  parts  of  Holy  Scripture,  or  the  sacred  books 
considered  singly,  — •  third  part,  special  introduction. 

1  Of  his  many  writings  the  ones  to  which  special  reference  is  made 
here  are  his  Histoire  critique  du  Vieux  Testament  and  his  Histoire  cri- 
tique du  text  du  Nouveau  Testament. 


FIRST  PART 

ORIGIN    OF    HOLY    SCRIPTURE,    OR    HOLY    SCRIP- 
TURE  AS    THE   WORD    OF   GOD 

3.    GENERAL  SURVEY 

GOD,  who  is  above  all,  has  communicated  to  some  individuals 
particular  supernatural  knowledge,  and  this  communica- 
tion is  called  revelation.  Those  honored  by  receiving  it  made 
known  the  revealed  truths  to  others,  partly  by  word  of  mouth 
(tradition)  and  partly  by  writing  them  down  by  aid  of  God's 
special  co-operation  (Holy  Writ).  As  the  divine  truths  were 
communicated  at  different  times,  they  were  written  down  at  dif- 
ferent times,  and  in  this  way  several  sacred  books  gradually  came 
into  existence,  which,  being  collected  into  one  whole,  are  called 
the  canonical  books  or  Bible.  The  mark  therefore  by  which 
the  sacred  books  are  distinguished  from  others  is  their  divine 
origin,  i.  e.  they  came  into  being  in  consequence  of  some  par- 
ticular action  on  God's  part,  which  is  called  inspiration.  The 
instrument  by  which  we  are  assured  of  the  divine  character 
of  the  written  revelation,  or  by  which  we  recognize  the  inspired 
writings,  is  the  Canon,  i.  e.  the  list  of  the  sacred  books  drawn 
up  by  the  Church. 

We  have  therefore  to   consider:    (1)    Inspiration;    (2)    the 
Canon. 

FIRST    SECTION 

INSPIRATION 

4.    TEACHING  OF  THE  CHURCH   ON  THE  SUBJECT  OF 
INSPIRATION 

It  is  the  teaching  of  the  Church  that  Holy  Scripture  owes  its 
origin  not  merely  to  human,  but  more  especially  to  divine  action. 


OKIGUST   OF   HOLY   SCRIPTUKE  191 

This  teaching  was  formulated  last  by  the  Vatican  Council  in 
1870  and  stated  in  the  words:  Spiritu  Sancto  inspirante  con- 
scripti  (libri)  Deum  habent  auctorem  (Sess.  3,  cap.  2).  In 
the  same  way  the  Council  of  Trent  declared  that  God  was  the 
author  of  the  books  of  both  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments 
(Sess.  4,  de  can.  scr.).1  Pope  Eugenius  IV  also  used  similar 
language  in  the  decree  of  Union,  1439 ; 2  and  still  earlier,  at  the 
Second  Council  of  Lyons  in  1274,  the  same  fact  was  proclaimed.3 
Cf.  Decretum  Inquis.  Rom.  d.  d.  3d  Julii  1907,  Nos.  9,  10,  11. 

Evidence  in  support  of  this  doctrine  of  the  Church  is  derived 
from  Holy  Scripture  itself  and  from  tradition. 

Holy  Scripture  itself  frequently  bears  witness  to  its  divine 
origin. 

(a)  In  the  prophet  Osee  viii.  12,  God  ascribes  to  Himself  the  author- 
ship of  the  Pentateuch:  "I  shall  write  to  him  [Israel]  my  manifold 
laws  [i.e.  far  more  often  than  has  already  been  done;  Moses  is  known 
to  have  written  several  times  at  God's  bidding],  which  have  been  ac- 
counted as  foreign."  In  Acts  iv.  24,  25,  the  2d  Psalm,  although  composed 
by  David,  is  ascribed  to  God :  "  Lord,  thou  art  he  ...  who  by  the  Holy 
Ghost,  by  the  mouth  of  our  father  David,  .  .  .  hast  said."  In  Hebrews 
i.  7  the  103d  Psalm  is  quoted  as  God's  word:  "  And  to  the  angels  indeed 
he  saith:  qui  facit  angelos  suos  spiritus."  In  the  same  way  there  is  a 
reference  in  Heb.  iv.  4,  etc.,  to  Gen.  ii.  2,  3,  and  to  Ps.  xciv.  Cf.  Acts 
xxviii,  25;  II  Tim.  iii.  16;  II  Peter  i.  21. 

(6)  Jesus  Christ  Himself  quoted  passages  from  the  sacred  books, 
adding  that  they  proceeded  from  the  Holy  Ghost:  Matthew  xxii.  43; 
Mark  xii.  36. 

Its  divine  origin  may  be  recognized  in  the  construction  of  the 
Bible. 

(a)  It  contains  many  statements  which  could  not  be  the  outcome  of 
merely  human  knowledge.  This  is  true  particularly  of  the  types  and 
prophecies,  many  of  which  were  at  first  obscure  and  unintelligible,  and 
only  gradually  became  plain  and  were  understood  (e.g.  Gen.  iii.  15;  xvi. 
21,  22;  xlv,  7;  Is.  vii.  14;  xiv.  23;  xxi.  1;  Luke  xii.  32). 

(&)  The  Holy  Scriptures,  although  belonging  to  various  periods  and 


1  Sacra  synodus  omnes  libros  tarn  veteris  quam  novi  testamenti,  quam 
utriusque  unus  Deus  sit  auctor,  .  .  .  suscipit  et  veneratur. 

3  (Romana  ecclesia)  Deum  veteris  et  novi  testamenti  profitetur  auc- 
torem, quoniam  eodem  Spiritu  sancto  inspirante  utriusque  testamenti 
Sancti  locuti  sunt. 

3  Credimus  novi  et  veteris  testamenti,  legis  et  prophetarum  et  aposto- 
lorum  unum  esse  auctorem  Deum  ac  Dominum  omnipotentem. 


192    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

written  by  many  different  persons,  nevertheless  bear  a  uniform  character, 
and  appear  as  one  consistent  whole,  dominated  by  the  same  opinions  and 
having  the  uniform  aim  of  bringing  men  to  God.  One  and  the  same 
spirit  prevails  and  speaks  in  all  the  books  of  the  Bible.  "  As  in  Paradise, 
God  walks  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  seeking  man.  When  a  sinner  reads 
these  Scriptures,  he  hears  God's  voice  saying,  '  Adam,  where  art  thou  ?  ' " 
(Ambros.,  de  Paradiso).  The  Old  Testament  tells  us  of  the  preparations 
made  for  saving  the  lost;  the  New  Testament  tells  us  of  the  actual  sal- 
vation; in  the  one  are  the  promises,  in  the  other  their  fulfillment.  See 
Hermeneutics,  p.  449. 

Tradition  supplies  very  numerous  testimonies  to  it. 

Thus  Clement  of  Rome  calls  the  sacred  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
"true  pronouncements  of  the  Holy  Ghost";1  Justin  Martyr  says  the 
prophets  were  inspired  by  the  Logos  (Apologia,  I,  36,  39)  ;  Clement  of 
Alexandria  designates  the  sacred  books  "  divine  utterances  "  ( Beta  \6yta ) 
(Strom.,  IX,  345),  etc.  Cf.  Leo  XIII,  Encyclical,  pp.  159  and  175. 


5.   WHAT  is  MEANT  BY  INSPIRATION 

The  Church  declares  God  Himself  to  be  the  primary  author  of 
Holy  Scripture.  The  Councils  have  not  given  us  any  explanation 
of  this  doctrine.,  and  so  it  is  left  to  theologians  to  give  a  precise 
account  of  what  is  meant  by  inspiration.2  Now  theologians 
understand  by  inspiration,  or  theopneustia,  an  action  of  the 
divine  spirit  upon  the  human  mind,  whereby  the  latter  is  raised 
so  far  above  its  natural  powers  that  its  productions  cease  to 
be  merely  human  works,  but  are  at  the  same  time  divine. 


1  Ep.  I  ad  Cor.,  45  :    ^Y/ctfTrrere  els  rds  ypa<J>as,  rets  a\ri6eis  pTjcreis 
TOV  aylov. 

2  See  Schmid,  De  inspirationis  Bibliorum  vi  et  ratione,  Brix.,  1885. 
Dausch,  Die  Schriftinspiration,  Frbg.,  1891.     Leitner,  Die  prophet.  In- 
spiration, Frbg.,  1896.     Chauvin,  Die  Imp.  d.  HI.  Schr.,  ubers.  v.  Pletl, 
Regensb.,  1899.     Holzhey,  Schopfung,  Bibel  und  Insp.,  Stuttgart,  1902. 
v.   Hummelauer,   S.J.,   Exegetisches  zur  Inspirationslehre,    Frbg.,    1904. 
Fonck,   S.J.,   Kampf  um  die   Wahrheit  der  HI.   Schrift,  Innsbr.,    1905. 
Peters,  Stellung  der  Kath.  Kirche  zur  Bibelforschung,  Paderborn,  1905. 
Pesch,  Chr.,  S.J.,  De  inspiratione  s.  Script.,  Frbg.,  1906.     Cf.  Haidacher, 
Lehre  d.  hi.  Joh.  Chrysostomus  ilber  die  Schriftinspiration,  Salzb.,  1897. 
(According  to  Saint  John  Chrysostom  God  is  really  and  truly  the  pri- 

mary author  of  Holy  Scripture,  and  throughout  we  have  to  assume  a 
real  inspiration,  and  in  exceptional  passages  also  a  verbal  inspiration. 
Consequently  the  Scriptures  are  completely  free  from  error.)  Zollig, 
Die  Inspirationslehre  des  Origines,  Frbg.  i.  Br.,  1902.  (According  to 
Origen  the  literal  meaning  is  of  minor  importance,  and  may  often  be 
quite  wrong,  but  the  mystical  sense  is  the  chief  matter.) 


OKIGIN    OF   HOLY    SCEIPTUKE  193 

When  they  proceed  to  determine  this  divine  action  more  par- 
ticularly with  reference  to  the  sacred  books,  theologians  differ. 

1.  Some  give   too   broad   an   interpretation   of   the   idea   of 
inspiration,  and  say  that  a  book  originating  in  a  merely  human 
way,  without  supernatural  intervention  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  may 
be  called  inspired,  if  the  Church  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  admits  it  to  the  Canon,  thus  confirming  its  contents  and 
declaring  that  it  contains  divine  revelation  without  error.    This 
view  leaves  practically  no  scope  for  inspiration,  and  it  cannot 
be  reconciled  with  the  Church,  which  declares  God  Himself  to 
be  the  primary  author  of  Holy  Scripture.    The  Vatican  Council 
expressly  condemned  this  opinion   (Sess.  3,  cap.  2).     Equally 
wrong  is  the  theory  that  inspiration  affects  only  res  fidei  et 
morum,  so  that  Holy  Scripture  may  contain  mistakes  on  such 
subjects  as  science  and  history,  for  its  aim  is  not  to  impart  in- 
formation on  matters  of  this  kind,  but  only  to  teach  men  what 
they  must  believe  and  how  they  must  live.     In  this  way  God 
Himself,  the  primary  author  of  the  Scriptures,  would  be  the 
author  of  error ; 1  and  for  this  reason  Leo  XIII  condemned  the 
theory  as  false  in  his  Encyclical  Providentissimus. 

Cdnsequitur  ut  qui  in  locis  authenticis  librorum,  sacrorum  quidpiam 
falsi  contineri  posse  existiment,  ii  profecto  aut  catholicam  divince  in- 
spirationis  notionem  pervertcmt,  aut  Deum  ipsum  erroris  faciant  auc- 
torem  (see  p.  176). 

2.  Too  broad  also  is   the  opinion  of  others  who  say  that 
"inspiration  consists  in  the  divine  impulse  to  write,  and  in 
preservation  from  error  whilst  writing."    If  God  is  the  primary- 
author  of  Holy  Scripture,  His  divine  influence  must  do  more 
than  merely  avert  errors ;  some  positive  action  of  God  must  have 
made  itself  felt  in  the  composition  of  the  sacred  books. 

3.  Others  have  too  narrow  an  idea  of  inspiration,  and  assume 
that  every  word  was  a  matter  of  divine  communication.    Against 
this  theory  we  may  say:   (a)   God's  divine  influence  never  de- 

1  There  are  indeed  mistaken  opinions  and  doctrines  in  Holy  Scripture, 
but  they  are  only  quotations  made  for  the  purpose  of  controverting  them. 
Such,  for  instance,  occur  in  Ecclesiastes  ii.  24,  viii.  15;  1  Cor.  xv.  32. 
This  was  the  reply  given  to  a  question  referred  to  the  Papal  Biblical 
Commission,  Feb.  15,  1905. 


194    HANDBOOK  FOB  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

stroys  human  individuality,  but  is  wont  only  to  raise,  ennoble 
and  transform  nature.1  (5)  Every  one  of  the  sacred  writers  has 
his  own  particular  language;  Isaias  no  less  than  Jeremias,  and 
Saint  John  as  well  as  Saint  Paul,  all  reveal  their  definite  char- 
acter, (c)  The  same  event,  e.  g.  the  birth  of  Christ,  His  Pas- 
sion and  Eesurrection,  is  described  in  different  ways  by  different 
authors,  (d)  The  sacred  writers  declare  that  they  have  en- 
countered difficulties  in  their  work,  and  have  had  to  take  trouble 
over  it  (e.  g.  Ps.  Ixxii.  16 ;  Eccles.  xii.  9.  Sirach  in  his  preface) . 
Accordingly  we  cannot  accept  a  strictly  verbal  inspiration,2  yet 
we  must  admit:  (a)  that  God  gave  special  revelations  to  the 
sacred  writers,  and  that  the  choice  of  many  most  important 
words  and  expressions,  such  as  Eloliim,  Yahweh,  Logos.  Sophia, 
Mashiach,  was  made  through  inspiration;  (&)  that  the  language 
of  the  sacred  writers  was  permeated,  raised  and  ennobled  by 
the  divine  influence ;  for  just  as  God  is  the  author  of  the  written 
word,  so  is  He  also  of  the  language  (cf.  I  Cor.  ii.  13 ).3  There- 
fore the  language  of  Holy  Writ  is  the  model  most  worthy  of 
imitation  by  preachers. 

4.  The  correct  view  of  inspiration  is  the  following:  (1)  The 
Holy  Ghost  impels  the  authors  to  write;  (2)  He  enlightens  them, 
so  that  they  fall  into  no  error;  (3)  He  directs  them  in  the 
choice  of  their  subject;  (4)  He  assists  them  in  finding  language 
to  express  their  meaning;  (5)  He  imparts  to  them  supernatural 
revelation  with  regard  to  all  that  they  otherwise  could  not  know, 

1  It  may  also  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  sacred  writers  often  spoke 
of  things  as  they   saw  them,  and  used  everyday  expressions,  although 
strictly  scientific  accuracy  would  have  required  other  forms  of  speech. 
In  just  the  same  way  modern  astronomers  speak  of  sunrise  and  sunset. 
Thus  bees  (Sir.  xi.  3)  and  bats  (Lev.  xi.  19)  are  called  birds,  not  in  the 
narrower  sense,  but  in  a  general  way,  as  winged  creatures. 

2  The  early  Protestants  declared  that  the  original  text  had  come  di- 
rectly from  God;    hence  they  regarded  even  the  vowel  marks  and  accents 
of  the  Hebrew  as  inspired.     This  theory  had  to  be  abandoned  when  it 
became  known  that  these  marks  had  not  been  inserted  before  the  sixth 
century. 

8  Pope  Leo  XIII  writes:  "He  [i.e.  the  Holy  Ghost]  so  assisted  them 
[the  inspired  writers]  during  their  writing,  that  all  those  things,  and 
those  alone,  which  He  ordered,  they  both  rightly  conceived  in  their  mind, 
and  wished  to  write  faithfully,  and  expressed  them  in  suitable  language 
with  infallible  accuracy;  otherwise  He  would  not  ha  the  author  of  the, 
entire  Sacred  Scripture  (see  p.  176). 


ORIGIN    OF   HOLY    SCEIPTURE  195 

e.g.  respecting  prophecies;  (6)  He  provides  also  that  the  de- 
posit of  faith  contained  in  Holy  Scripture  shall  be  correctly 
rendered  in  various  languages,  so  that  inspiration  belongs  not 
only  to  the  original  text  but  to  every  authentic  text. 

The  question  whether  in  the  case  of  the  Apostles  (as  well  as  in  that 
of  the  prophets)  inspiration  was  given  through  the  call  of  God,  or 
whether  this  affected  only  their  oral  discourses,  must  probably  be  de- 
cided in  the  second  sense.  They  were  told  simply  to  go  forth  and  preach; 
therefore  a  special  inspiration  was  required  to  enable  them  to  write. 
(The  first  view,  that  no  further  inspiration  was  necessary,  is  supported 
by  Schanz,  Dausch  and  others;  the  second  by  Pesch,  Cornely,  etc.) 
Were  the  inspired  persons  aware  of  the  divine  influence?  Not  always, 
or  at  least  not  always  clearly,  as  is  shown  by  Caiphas,  who  prophesied 
unconsciously  (John  xi.  51). 


SECOND    SECTION 
THE   CANON   OF    HOLY  SCRIPTURE 
6.    MEANING  OF  THE  EXPRESSION 

Ever  since  the  time  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  the  col- 
lection of  sacred  books  has  been  known  as  the  Canon.  The 
Greek  word  Kavcov  signifies  rule  or  standard.  Two  opinions 
exist  as  to  the  sense  in  which  this  name  is  given  to  Holy  Scrip- 
ture. Some  think  that  it  means  that  these  books,  as  they  con- 
tain divine  revelations,  are  a  rule  and  standard  of  faith  and 
life  for  men.  According  to  this  interpretation,  therefore,  the 
expression  "  Canonical  Books "'  means  regulating  or  standard- 
izing books.  According  to  the  other  opinion,  the  word  "  Canon  " 
implies  that  the  collection  of  these  books  by  the  Church  con- 
stitutes the  sole  rule  or  standard  for  what  is  to  be  read  aloud 
in  the  Church  or  used  generally  in  church  worship;  so  that  it 
is  not  permissible  to  go  beyond  these  books  and  adopt  others. 
Since  the  time  of  Saint  Jerome  the  latter  view  has  been  com- 
monly accepted,  although  the  other  was  emphasized  by  the 
earlier  ecclesiastical  writers. 

The  list  of  saints  is  also  called  the  Canon  (as  the  rule  for  public  ven- 
eration )  ;  hence  we  have  the  word  "  Canonization."  In  the  same  way 
the  most  important  part  of  the  sacrificial  prayers  at  Mass  is  called  the 
Canon,  as  it  is  a  standing  rule  for  the  priest. 


196    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


7.   OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 

Some  of  the  sacred  books  were  written  before  the  time  of  our 
Lord  and  the  rest  after.  Therefore  they  are  divided  into  the 
books  of  the  Old  and  the  books  of  the  New  Covenant,  or  shortly 
(following  II  Cor.  iii.  14)  into  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament. 
This  use  of  the  word  "  Testament "  is  identical  with  "  Covenant/' 
being,  in  accordance  with  the  usage  of  the  old  Latin  version  of 
the  Bible,  the  translation  of  the  Greek  StaQtiKij,  by  which  word 
the  Septuagint  generally  translates  the  Hebrew  beritli,  Covenant. 

The  word  8ia6^Kij  signifies  also  a  testament  or  will  disposing  of  prop- 
erty. There  is  a  reference  to  this  meaning  in  Hebrews  ix.  16,  etc.,  where 
we  read  "  where  there  is  a  testament,  the  death  of  the  testator  must  of 
necessity  come  in."  Now  the  Old  Testament  came  into  force  with  the 
death  of  beasts,  and  was  sealed  with  their  blood;  the  New  Testament 
came  into  force  with  the  Son  of  God,  and  was  sealed  with  His  Blood. 
How  much  higher  is  the  New  than  the  Old  Covenant ! 


8.   FORMATION  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  CANON 

In  speaking  of  the  Old  Testament  we  have  to  distinguish  two 
canons,  the  Jewish  and  the  Ecclesiastical;  the  latter  contains 
some  books  not  included  in  the  former. 

In  order  to  come  to  a  correct  decision  as  to  the  power  of  the 
Church  to  add  to  the  Hebrew  Canon,  we  must  go  back  beyond 
the  present  opinions  held  by  the  Jews,  to  the  time  when  they 
were  still  regarded  as  God's  people:  Their  later  judgments  are 
no  longer  authoritative.  Let  us  ask,  therefore:  How  did  the 
canon  of  the  Old  Testament  come  into  existence,  and  when  was 
it  concluded? 

1.  It  is  hardly  possible  to  give  a  satisfactory  answer  to 
the  question  relating  to  the  origin  of  the  Old  Testament 
Canon,  as  we  do  not  know  what  criteria  guided  the  Jews  in 
distinguishing  the  inspired  writings  from  others  and  in  put- 
ting them  together.  All  that  we  know  with  certainty  is  (a)  that 
sacred  books  have  in  every  age  been  distinguished  from  those  of 
merely  human  authorship,  and  (&)  that  in  every  age  care  has 
been  taken  to  collect  the  sacred  books  and  guard  against  their 


OBIGIN   OF   HOLY   SCBIPTUKE  197 

loss.1  The  charge  of  the  sacred  books  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  laid  upon  the  whole  nation,  but  especially  upon  the  priests 
(Deut.  xvii.  18). 

Speaking  generally,  we  may  say  that  the  whole  literature  of 
Israel  after  the  time  of  Moses  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  Mosaic 
law,  having  this  as  its  foundation  and  its  groundwork. 

The  beginning  of  a  collection  of  the  sacred  books  was  made 
under  Josue,  when  the  Book  of  Josue  was  added  to  the  five 
books  of  Moses  (Jos.  xxiv.  26).  In  a  similar  way  the  other 
historical  books  must  have  been  appended  to  those  already  ex- 
isting, since  they  form  an  exact  continuation  of  them  (Judges 
i.  1;  Euth  i.  1,  etc.).2  At  a  very  early  period  the  prophetic 
writings  were  regarded  as  forming  part  of  Holy  Scripture,  for 
Daniel  (ix.  2)  speaks  of  them  as  belonging  to  the  collection 
of  sacred  books.  In  the  time  of  the  Machabees  the  didactic 
books  also  were  considered  sacred,  as  we  read  (I  Mach.  xii.  9) 
that  their  holy  books  were  a  comfort  to  the  Jews,  and  this  re- 
mark would  apply  particularly  to  the  class  of  didactic  writings. 
In  any  case,  long  before  the  time  of  Christ  there  were  three 
classes  of  sacred  books,  as  there  are  now,  for  in  the  preface 
to  the  Book  of  Ecclesiasticus  or  Sirach  mention  is  made  of 
"  The  Law  and  the  Prophets  and  the  other  books  "  —  undoubt- 
edly as  of  a  collection  of  sacred  writings. 

2.  With  regard  to  the  date  of  the  conclusion  of  the  Old 
Testament  Canon,  we  have  to  distinguish  the  Palestine  from  the 
Alexandrian  Canon.  In  Palestine  the  Book  of  Esdras  was  ex- 
cluded from  the  Canon,  according  to  the  Jewish  tradition,  which 
is  stated  by  Josephus  Flavius,  a  contemporary  of  the  Apostles. 
In  his  work  against  Apion  (I,  8)  he  speaks  of  the  books  which 
the  Jews  "  regard  as  divine."  He  names  first  "  the  five  books  of 
Moses."  "After  Moses,"  he  continues,  ''the  prophets  who  fol- 
lowed Moses  recorded  the  events  of  their  time  in  thirteen  books, 
until  the  period  when  Artaxerxes  ruled,  who  succeeded  Xerxes. 
There  are,  moreover,  four  books  containing  songs  in  praise  of 

1  Cf.  Proverbs  xxv.  1.    "These  are  also  parables  of  Solomon,  which  the 
men  of  Ezechias,  King  of  Juda,  copied  out." 

2  It  is,  however,  not  improbable  that  this  connection  was  made  when 
the  sacred  books  were  collected  in  the  time  of  Esdras. 


198    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

God  and  rules  of  life.  Between  the  time  when  Artaxerxes  lived 
and  our  own,  other  books  have  indeed  been  written,  but  they 
enjoy  no  such  reputation  as  the  above-mentioned,  which  are  so 
highly  esteemed  that  no  one  has  dared  to  alter  anything  in 
them.  It  is  impressed  upon  all  Jews  from  their  birth  that 
they  must  believe  these  to  be  divinely  written,  and  that  they 
must  hold  fast  to  them,  and,  if  need  be,  sacrifice  life  itself  for 
them."  From  this  passage  it  appears  that  in  the  opinion  of 
Josephus,1  in  the  time  of  Artaxerxes  I,  when  Esdras  and  Nehe- 
mias  were  alive,  the  Hebrew  Canon  was  closed.  The  Jews  in 
Alexandria  and  elsewhere  outside  Palestine,  not  knowing  Hebrew, 
read  the  sacred  books  in  Greek  (Septuagint),  not  only  those 
collected  by  Esdras,  but  others  also,  which  they  must  have 
regarded  as  being  likewise  of  divine  origin,  for  they  certainly 
would  not  have  associated  profane  with  holy  writings.  The 
Jews  in  Palestine,  too,  had  some  sacred  books  not  included 
in  the  strict  canon;  for  in  II  Machabees  ii.  15  they  offer  to 
send  more  recent  books  to  their  fellow  countrymen  in  Egypt. 
To  some  extent,  even  in  Palestine  itself,  the  Greek  books  were 
read  in  the  synagogues.  The  full  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament 
was  not  concluded  until  the  grace  of  inspiration  ceased  among 
the  Jews,  when  the  foundations  of  the  Church,  the  new  King- 
dom of  God,  were  already  being  laid,  and  the  Jewish  people 
were  approaching  its  final  rejection. 

9.  CONTENTS  OP  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  CANON 

The  Church  received  the  sacred  books  through  Christ  and 
His  Apostles.  The  question  therefore  arises,  what  books  were 
considered  sacred  in  our  Saviour's  time?  Unfortunately  we 
possess  no  complete  list  of  them  dating  from  His  time  or  from 
the  period  before  His  life;2  but  not  long  after  His  death 

1  We  can  see  from  his  words  that  in  his  time,  viz.  about  100  A.  D.,  the 
Jews  had  already  become  exclusive,  and  recognized  only  the  Hebrew 
books,  and  tried  to  exclude  the  Greek. 

2  From  II  Machabees  ii.  13  we  learn  only  that  Nehemias  added  to  the 
already  existing  sacred  books  those  of  Kings  and  Chronicles,  the  writ- 
ings of  some  prophets,  the  Psalms,  and  the  books  of  Esdras  and  Nehe- 
mias.    It  is  certain  that  the  author  of  the  Book  of  Ecclesiasticus  or 


OKIGIN    OF   HOLY    SCKIPTURE  199 

Josephus  Flavius  (born  37  A.  D.)  gave  a  catalogue  of  them. 
At  a  later  period  Melito  of  Sardes  (about  150  A.  D.)  and  Origen 
(born  185  A.  D.)  made  very  precise  statements  regarding  the 
sacred  books  recognized  by  the  Jews  of  their  day.  The  Talmud, 
too,  gives  a  similar  list. 

1.  In  his  already  quoted  work  against  Apion  (I,  8)  Josephus 
Flavius  speaks  of  22  books  "which  are  considered  divine."     It 
is  true  that  we  cannot  decide  which  books  he  means,  as  he 
specifies  only  "5  books  of  Moses,  13  of  the  prophets  and  4 
others."    His  testimony  is,  however,  important,  inasmuch  as  it 
proves  that  in  his  time  the  Jews  recognized  at  least  22  books  as 
sacred. 

2.  Melito  (Me\tTG>i>),  Bishop  of  Sardes,  made  a  journey  to 
Palestine  expressly  to  ascertain  from  the  Jews  there  what  sacred 
books  they  possessed.     He  wrote  thence  a  letter  to  his  brother 
Onesimus,  which  has  been  preserved   (Euseb.,  Hist.  Eccl.,  IV, 
26),  and  in  it  he  enumerates  the  sacred  books  of  the  Jews.    The 
only  books  contained  in  the  present  Jewish  canon  that  he  fails 
to  mention  are  Nehemias  and  Esther.1 

3.  Origen's  list  corresponds  with  the  present  Jewish  canon, 
but  the  12  minor  prophets  are  not  mentioned,  although  it  in- 
cludes the  two  books  of  Machabees  (Euseb.,  Hist.  Eccl.,  VI,  25). 

4.  The  earliest  official  list  of  the  books  regarded  by  the  Jews 
as  inspired  is  contained  in  the  Talmud,  that  was  compiled  at 
various  times  between  the  third  and  sixth  centuries  of  our  era. 
It  mentions: 

I.    Thorn,  i.  e.  law ;  the  5  books  of  Moses. 
II.   Nebiim,  i.  e.  prophets,  viz. : 

(a)  the  early  prophets;    6.  Josue,  7.  Judges,  8.  Kuth, 

9.    two  books  of  Samuel,  10.  two  books  of  Kings. 

(&)   the   later   prophets;    11.  Isaias,    12.  Jeremias,    13. 

Lamentations,  14.  Ezechiel,  15.  the  twelve  minor 

prophets. 

Sirach  was  familiar  with  all  the  protocanonical  books  with  the  excep- 
tion, perhaps,  of  Daniel  (Lit.  Rundschau,  1900,  No.  11). 

1  Nehemias  was  probably  reckoned  as  part  of  Esdras,  and  Esther  may 
not  have  been  acknowledged  because  Melito  displayed  this  book  in  its 
expanded  Greek  form. 


200    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

III.    Kethiibim,  i.e.  hagiographa.     16.  Psalms;  17.  Proverbs; 

18.  Job;  19.  Canticles;  20.  Qohelet;  21.  Esther;  22. 

Daniel;  23.  Esdras  and  Nehemias;  24.  Chronicles. 
If  Kuth  is  reckoned  as  part  of  Judges,  and  Lamentations  as 
part  of  Jeremias,  the  list  contains  only  22  books.  Saint  Jerome 
(prologus  galeatus)  arranges  the  Jewish  canon  thus.1  We  cannot 
ascertain  from  any  of  these  lists  which  books  were  regarded  as 
sacred  by  our  Saviour  and  the  Apostles,  and  yet  there  is  no 
doubt  on  the  subject,  as  we  shall  proceed  to  show. 

10.  CONTINUATION.  CONTENTS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 
CANON,  ACCORDING  TO  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
JUSTIFICATION  OF  THIS  TEACHING. 

The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  4)  drew  up  an  official  list  of 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  contains  all  those 
already  mentioned,  and  in  addition  (1)  Baruch,  (2)  Tobias, 
(3)  Judith,  (4)  and  (5)  the  first  and  second  Books  of  Macha- 
bees,  (6)  Sirach  or  Ecclesiasticus,  and  (7)  "Wisdom,  as  well 
as  extensions  of  Daniel  and  Esther.  As  these  books  do  not  occur 
in  the  canon  recognized  by  the  Jews,  they  have  been  known  since 
the  time  of  Sixtus  of  Siena  as  deuterocanonical,  whilst  the 
others  are  called  protocanonical.  (The  Vatican  Council,  III,  2, 
simply  renewed  the  decision  of  the  Council  of  Trent.) 

Had  the  Church  any  right  to  add  to  the  Jewish  canon,  and 
to  recognize  31  books  in  the  Old  Testament  instead  of  22  ?2 
The  New  Testament  contains  about  270  quotations  from  the  Old, 
and  these  are  mostly  from  the  Septuagint,3  so  that  in  the  time 

1  This  is  still  the  Canon  of  the  Jews,  except  that  in  modern  Hebrew 
Bibles  Ruth  and  Lamentations  are  classed  among  the  Kethubim,  and 
with  Canticles,  Qohelet  and  Esther  form  the  so-called  five  Megilloth  or 
rolls.     They  are  put  together  because  they  are  read  aloud  in  the  syna- 
gogues on  certain  days,  viz.  Canticles  at  the  Pasch,  Ruth  at  Pentecost, 
Lamentations  on  the  9th  of  Ab   (the  day  when  the  destruction  of  both 
the  first  and  the  second  Temple  is  commemorated),  Qohelet  on  the  Feast 
of  Tabernacles,  and  Esther  on  the  Feast  of  Purim. 

2  If  the  single  books  are  counted,  there  are  46,  viz.  39  protocanonical 
and  7  deuterocanonical. 

8  Saint  Matthew  has  a  few  quotations  from  the  Hebrew,  the  other 
Evangelists  practically  none. 


OKIGIN   OF   HOLY   SCKIPTUKE  201 

of  our  Lord  the  Hebrew  Bible  seems  to  have  been  less  the  standard 
version  than  the  widely  spread  Greek  text  of  the  Old  Testament. 
It  was  the  Greek  text  that  the  Apostles  used  themselves  and 
gave  to  the  Christians,  and  this  text  contains  the  above-mentioned 
31  sacred  books. 

The  Jews  nowadays  pay  no  attention  to  this  Greek  text  of 
the  Septuagint,  but  they  esteemed  it  very  highly  in  the  time  of  our 
Lord  and  the  Apostles.  Originating  among  the  Jews,  it  was 
regularly  read  aloud  in  the  Synagogues,  as  Justin  Martyr  (born 
about  100  A.  D.  at  Sichem)  testifies  (Dial.  c.  Tryph.,  137).  Like 
the  Apostles,  Josephus  Flavius  made  use  of  it  in  his  writings. 
Even  in  the  third  century  Baruch  was  read  in  the  synagogues, 
and  in  the  Talmud  Sirach  or  Ecclesiasticus  is  mentioned  with 
the  Law  and  the  Prophets.1  The  Church  accepted  this  text  and 
all  that  it  contained  from  the  apostles,  and  could  not  give  it 
up,  as  she  retained  the  apostles'  teaching. 

That  from  the  very  beginning  the  Church  has  recognized  also 
the  deuterocanonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  appears  from 
the  following  evidence : 

1.  In  the  Catacombs,  used  in  the  time  before  Constantine  the 
Great  as  places  of  assembly  for  the  purpose  of  worship,  there 
are  many  representations  of  scenes  from  the  Old  Testament, 
and  among  them  some  from  the  deuterocanonical  books. 

There  are,  for  instance,  pictures  of  the  men  in  the  fiery  furnace,  sing- 
ing the  praises  of  God;  of  Habakuk  bringing  Daniel  food;  of  Tobias 
with  the  fish,  and  of  his  guide  Raphael;  there  are  scenes  from  Judith 
and  Esther.  There  is,  however,  scarcely  a  single  subject  from  the 
apocryphal  books,  not  even  from  such  as  were  used  in  public  worship,  as 
e.  g.  Hernias'  "  Pastor,"  and  this  is  a  proof  that  the  distinction  was  clear 
between  the  canonical  and  the  apocryphal  books. 

2.  In  the  disputes  between  heretics  and  the  faithful  quo- 
tations from  the  deuterocanonical  books  were  made  and  accepted 
on  both  sides.     Thus,  for  instance,  at  the  First  Council  of 
Mcaea    (325),  the  Book  of  Judith  was  treated  as  canonical 
(Hier.  prcef.  in  I  Judith). 

1  They  were  regarded  by  the  Jews  in  Palestine  as  sacred,  though  not 
canonical,  whereas  the  Hellenistic  Jews  considered  them  to  be  inspired 
and  included  them  in  their  canon. 


202    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

3.  The  earliest  Fathers  and  ecclesiastical  writers  quote  all 
our  sacred  books  as  being  quite  on  a  level.     Thus  Polycarp 
(Ep.  ad  Phil.,  c.  10)  quotes  the  book  of  Tobias;  Hippolytus  of 
Rome  comments  on  the  Book  of  Daniel,  including  the  deutero- 
canonical  portions;  Saint  Ambrose  quotes  passages  from  Sirach 
or  Ecclesiasticus  and  Wisdom,   and  refers  to  these  books  as 
scripturw.     After  the  fourth  century,  however,  a  few  of  the 
ecclesiastical  writers  began  to  treat  the  deuterocanonical  books 
as  of  inferior  importance.     This  was  done  by  Saint  Athanasius 
and  especially  by  Saint  Jerome,  who,  in  his  prologus  galeatus., 
tried  to  show  that  the  books  not  contained  in  the  Hebrew  canon 
were  of  value  only  for  edification,  and  could  not  be  used  in 
support  of  dogmas,  and  he  pronounced  them  apocryphal.    This 
view  never  won  universal  acceptation,  and  most  people  continued 
to  abide  by  the  old  arrangement.    There  were  some  who  followed 
the  example  of  this  great  scholar  until  the  Middle  Ages;   even 
Thomas  Aquinas  wavers  to  some  extent,  and  this  wavering  on 
the  part  of  individuals  led  the  teaching  authority  in  the  Church 
to  fix  the  canon.    This  was  done  by  the  Council  of  Trent. 

4.  That  the  decision  at  Trent  was  not  suddenly  thrust  upon 
the  Church,  but  was  based  on  tradition,  appears  from  earlier 
ecclesiastical  decisions,  which  had  not,  however,  been  addressed 
to  the  universal  Church.     Exactly  the  same  list  of  the  Old 
Testament   scriptures   as   the   Tridentine   was   given  by   Pope 
Damasus  in  a  decretal  of  the  year  374,1  by  a  synod  held  in 
Africa  in  393,  during  the  lifetime  of  Saint  Augustine,  and  by 
Pope  Innocent  I  in  a  letter  to  Bishop  Exsuperius  of  Toulouse, 
in  405. 

5.  The  Oriental  sects,  severed  during  the  first  few  centuries 
from  the  unity  of  the  Church,  agree  absolutely  with  the  Church 
regarding  the  canon. 

11.    ORIGIN  OF  THE  CANON  OP  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 

The  early  Christians  set  upon  the  writings  of  the  Apostles 
exactly  the  same  value  as  upon  their  oral  teaching;  they  recog- 

1  The  authenticity  of  this  decretal  is  challenged  by  Friedrich. 


OKIGIN    OP   HOLY    SCKIPTUKE  203 

nized  both  alike  as  the  word  of  God.  But  at  a  very  early  period 
some  books  appeared  under  pretense  of  apostolic  origin,  but  not 
really  authentic.  Saint  Luke  (i.  1)  speaks  of  many  who  had 
written  an  account  of  Christ.  Precautions  had  to  be  taken  with 
regard  to  these  works,  and  the  following  principle  was  found 
to  be  a  safe  one: 

As  a  rule  the  Apostles  wrote  only  when  particular  local  or 
personal  conditions  caused  them  to  do  so.  Only  a  few  of 
their  works  were  from  the  outset  intended  for  general  use,  such 
as  the  epistles  to  the  Colossians  and  Galatians,  and  the  first 
Epistle  of  Peter.  In  the  churches  where  the  apostolic  writings 
had  been  composed  (e.g.  Saint  Mark's  Gospel  in  Home),  or  to 
which  they  were  addressed,  and  whither  they  had  been  brought 
by  trustworthy  messengers,  it  was  the  custom  to  read  them  at 
public  worship.  If  then  one  or  another  Christian  church  ex- 
pressed a  desire  to  possess  also  some  particular  book  of  apostolic 
authorship,  a  copy  was  made  and  dispatched.  No  work  was 
accepted  as  apostolic  unless  it  had  the  evidence  for  its  authen- 
ticity of  the  Church  where  it  had  been  written,  or  to  which  it 
was  addressed.  If  no  such  evidence  were  forthcoming,  the  book 
was  not  considered  authentic,  even  though  it  professed  to  be 
written  by  an  Apostle.1 

12.   CONTENTS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  CANON 

It  is  plain  from  what  has  been  said  that  not  every  Christian 
congregation  can  originally  have  possessed  every  book  written 
by  the  Apostles.  The  multiplication  and  diffusion  of  the  apos- 
tolic writings  was  hindered  by  well-grounded  suspicions  of  their 
authenticity,  by  the  poverty  of  the  majority  of  Christianity,  by 
the  difficulties  of  traveling  and  of  transport,  as  well  as  by  the 
danger  of  persecution.  The  collections  of  books  must  have 
varied  at  first,  and  must  have  remained  so  for  a  longer  or 
shorter  time,  according  to  circumstances.  After  the  third  cen- 
tury still  greater  caution  was  shown  on  account  of  heretics,  and 
the  Christians,  remembering  the  Apostle's  warning  in  II  Thessa- 

1  Iren.,  Adv.  hcer.,  Ill,  iv.  1 ;  Tertull.,  Adv.  Maroion,  IV,  5 ;  Kaulen,  I, 
31,  etc. 


204    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

lonians,  ii.  14,  as  a  rule  were  unwilling  to  depart  from  the  tra- 
dition that  had  come  down  to  them. 

Some  of  the  apostolic  writings  were,  however,  comparatively 
soon  collected  and  circulated  almost  everywhere,  so  that,  as  far 
as  we  know,  there  was  never  any  doubt  as  to  their  authenticity. 
These  were  the  4  Gospels,  Acts,  13  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,  the 
first  Epistle  of  Saint  Peter  and  the  first  of  Saint  John.  The 
Apostolic  Fathers  Papias  and  Saint  Ignatius  the  Martyr  are 
witnesses  to  the  existence  of  a  collection  which  probably  com- 
prised these  books.  For  Papias  speaks  expressly  of  the  Gospels 
(see  the  Special  Introduction),  and  Ignatius  refers  to  the  "  Gos- 
pel and  the  Apostles"  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  to  the  Law 
and  the  Prophets  of  the  Old  Covenant  (Ep.  ad  Philad.,  c.  5 
and  9). 

The  seven  remaining  books  of  the  New  Testament  were  known 
in  some  congregations  from  the  beginning,  but  only  later  found 
general  acceptation.  These  are  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  the 
second  Epistle  of  Peter,  the  second  and  third  of  John,  the 
epistles  of  James  and  Jude  and,  finally,  the  Apocalypse.  (These 
books  may  be  termed  deuterocanonical,  on  the  analogy  of  the 
Old  Testament.) 

In  his  edition  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  Funk  has  counted  68  allu- 
sions to  the  New  Testament  in  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  158  in  the  first 
epistle  written  by  Clement  of  Rome  to  the  Corinthians,  79  in  the  second 
epistle,  53  in  the  letters  of  Ignatius,  68  in  those  of  Polycarp,  and  29  in 
the  epistle  to  Diognetus. 

Comely  (Comp.,  39)  points  out  that  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  was 
known  to  all  the  Apostolic  Fathers;  Saint  Mark's  at  least  to  Papias; 
Saint  Luke's  at  least  to  Clement  of  Rome,  Polycarp  and  the  heretic 
Basilides;  Saint  John's  to  Ignatius,  to  the  author  of  the  Epistle  to 
Diognetus  and  to  Basilides;  Acts  to  Clement  of  Rome,  Ignatius  and 
Polycarp;  Saint  Paul's  Epistles  to  different  churches  were  known  to 
almost  all  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  and  the  Pastoral  Epistles  also  to  Clem- 
ent of  Rome,  Ignatius  and  Polycarp;  the  first  of  Saint  Peter  to  Papias 
and  Polycarp;  the  first  of  Saint  John  and  the  Apocalypse  at  least  to 
Papias  and  Polycarp;  the  second  of  Saint  Peter  probably  to  Clement  of 
Rome  and  Polycarp,  Saint  James  to  Clement  of  Rome.  We  ought, 
however,  to  remember  that  the  writings  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers  are  few 
in  number,  and  were  not  intended  for  all  Christians  nor  addressed  to  all ; 
it  is  therefore  surprising  that  only  four  short  epistles  are  not  mentioned 
by  them,  viz.  Philemon,  second  and  third  of  Saint  John,  and  Saint  Jude. 
Thus  during  the  first  of  the  second  century  the  greater  and  more  impor- 
tant books  of  the  New  Testament  were  already  well  known. 


OKIGIN    OF   HOLY    SCRIPTUKE  205 


13.  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  CANON  OF  THE  EARLIEST  CHURCHES 

If  we  ask  the  chief  churches  of  early  Christianity,  those  that 
were  the  parents  of  others,  what  was  their  oldest  canon  of  the 
New  Testament,  we  shall  obtain  the  following  information: 

1.  From  the  Roman  church  we  have  a  very  ancient  list  of 
the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  contained  in  the  so-called 
Fragmentum  Muratorii*  dating  from  the  second  century.2     It 
contains  all  our  books  of  the  New  Testament,  except  four  epistles 
(Hebrews,  James,  first   and  second  of   Peter).     The  earliest 
Latin  translation  (Itala),  which  was  compiled  at  least  in  part 
as  early  as  the  first  century,  contains  all  our  New  Testament 
books.3 

2.  In  the  church  of  Antioch,  the  Syrian  translation,  known 
as  Peshitto,  dating  from  the  second  century,  was  in  general  use. 
This  contained  all  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  with  the 
exception  of  five  (second  of  Peter,  second  and  third  of  John, 
Jude,  and  the  Apocalypse). 

It  is  true  that  Ephrem  the  Syrian,  writing  soon  after  300  A.  D.,  quotes 
the  latter  books,  but  they  probably  did  not  form  part  of  the  original 
Peshitto,  but  were  added  later.  The  translation  of  them  is  certainly  of 
later  date  than  that  of  the  rest  of  the  book.  Instead  of  the  Gospels, 
Tatian's  Diatessaron  was  read  in  Edessa  (see  p.  210). 

3.  With  regard  to  Palestine,  no  catalogue  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment books  exists  older  than  that  made  by  Saint  Cyril  of  Jerusa- 
lem in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century.     It  contains  all  the 
books  as  we  have  them,  with  the  exception  of  the  Apocalypse. 

4.  From  the  church  of  Alexandria  we  have  the  testimony 
of  Clement  of  Alexandria  (150-217),  of  whom  Eusebius  tells  us 

1  For  a  fuller  account  see  Comely,  Comp.,  621;    Introd.,  i.  167. 

2  Zahn  fixes  210  as  its  date.     The  writer  however  says  that  Hermas 
wrote  his  "  Pastor,"  "  nuperrime  temporibus  nostris"  whilst  his  brother 
Pius  was  pope.     This  can  be  no  one  but  Pius  I    (142-157)  ;  hence  the 
"  Pastor  "  belongs  to  the  second  century,  and  the  "  Fragment "  is  of  the 
same  period.    It  is  so  called  because  its  beginning  and  end  are  missing. 
M.  Schanz  believes  it  to  be  a  translation  from  a  Greek  original. 

8  Of  course  it  is  impossible  that  it  should  from  the  very  beginning 
have  contained  all  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  as  the  Can.  Mur. 
shows. 


206    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

(Hist.  Eccl.,  VI,  14)  that  he  made  a  summary  of  all  the  sacred 
books,  including  those  of  doubtful  authenticity.  In  the  writings 
that  have  come  down  to  us  he  mentions  all  the  apostolic  writ- 
ings except  the  second  Epistle  of  Saint  Peter,  and  the  second  and 
third  of  Saint  John.  He  must,  however,  have  known  the  latter 
epistles,  as  he  speaks  of  the  first  Epistle  as  "  the  greater."  His 
pupil  Origen  (185-254)  gives  (Horn.  7,  in  Josue)  a  list  of  all 
our  books  of  the  New  Testament;  and  Saint  Athanasius,  who 
lived  somewhat  later,  is  in  complete  agreement  with  it. 

The  Coptic  translations,  which  are  of  very  early  origin,  dating 
probably  from  the  second  century,  contain  likewise  all  our 
canonical  books  (see  Kaulen,  I,  40). 

5.  The  practice  of  the  West  African  church  can  be  learnt 
from  a  list  contained  in  an  African  manuscript  dating  from  a 
period  before   Saint   Augustine,  which   Mommsen  has  edited. 
Three  Epistles,  viz.,  Hebrews,  James  and  Jude,  are  missing  in 
this  list.    From  Africa  we  have  also  the  list  given  in  the  Codex 
Claramontanus   (cf.  p.  231),  in  which  three  of  Saint  Paul's 
Epistles  are  not  mentioned  (Phil,  and  first  and  second  Thess.). 

The  Codex  Claramontanus  belongs  to  the  sixth  century,  but  the  list 
of  the  sacred  books  is  copied  from  an  earlier  original,  dating  from  the 
third  or  fourth  century. 

6.  The  fullest  account  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament 
is  given  by  the  ecclesiastical  writer  Eusebius.     In  his  "  Church 
History  "  (iii.  26)  he  gives  the  names  of  all  the  books  which  in  his 
time  were  regarded  as  being  of  apostolic  origin,  and  he  classifies 
them  thus:     (a)    those   universally  acknowledged   as   genuine 
(6/JLo\oyovfi€va),  (b)  those  decidedly  not  genuine  or  of  heretical 
origin  (iravre\.Si^  vdda),  and  (c)  those  whose  authenticity  is 
contested. 

Under  the  heading  (a)  he  places  the  four  Gospels,  the  Acts, 
14  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,  first  of  Saint  Peter  and  first  of  Saint 
John,  and  (though  with  some  hesitation)  the  Apoclypse.  Under 
(&)  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  the  Apocalypse  of  Saint  Peter, 
etc.,  and  under  (c)  the  Epistle  of  Saint  James,  that  of  Saint 
Jude,  the  second  Epistle  of  Saint  Peter,  and  the  second  and 
third  of  Saint  John. 


OEIGIN   OF   HOLY   SCRIPTURE  207 

14.   ECCLESIASTICAL    DECISIONS    REGARDING   THE    CANON    OP 
THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 

The  African  Synods  already  mentioned  (p.  202)  and  still 
earlier  Pope  Damasus  (374)  and  afterwards  Pope  Innocent  I, 
declared  all  the  27  books,  that  now  form  the  canon,  to  be  of 
apostolic  origin.  As,  however,  these  decisions  were  not  ad- 
dressed to  the  universal  church,  some  doubt  was  still  possible; 
especially  as  the  apostolicity  of  the  Apocalypse  was  questioned 
in  many  quarters,  at  least  in  the  East.  It  was  not  until  the 
Council  of  Trent  (s.  4  de  can.)  that  the  27  books  of  the  New 
Testament  "with  all  their  parts,  as  they  are  contained  in  the 
old  Latin  Vulgate,"  were  expressly  declared  canonical  for  the 
whole  Church. 

Supplementary  Note.  The  historical  result  of  investigations  regard- 
ing the  canon  of  the  New  Testament  is :  ( 1 )  The  apostolic  origin  of  the 
four  Gospels,  Acts,  thirteen  epistles  of  Saint  Paul,  the  first  Epistle  of 
Saint  Peter  and  the  first  of  Saint  John  has  never  been  doubted.  (2)  The 
other  books  of  the  New  Testament  have  always  been  generally  consid- 
ered apostolic,  but  individuals  have  doubted  their  authenticity.  (3)  From 
the  fourth  century  onwards  all  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  as  we 
now  have  them  in  the  canon,  have  been  accepted  in  all  parts  of  the 
Church.  (4)  The  previous  hesitation  on  the  part  of  some  churches  to 
accept  certain  books  of  the  New  Testament  proceeded  from  reasonable 
prudence,  especially  with  regard  to  Heretics. 

APPENDIX.    PROTESTANT   OPINIONS   CONCERNING 
THE   CANON 

These  opinions  conflict  with  those  of  Christians  in  ancient 
times.  The  Reformers  began  by  adhering  closely  to  the  canon, 
but  as  it  was  one  of  their  principles  that  in  matters  of  religion 
private  judgment  is  the  chief  authority,  differences  were  inevi- 
table on  this  point  as  on  others.  Karlstadt  drew  attention  to 
Saint  Jerome's  view  of  the  deuterocanonical  books  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  soon  many  people  declared  these  books  to  be 
apocryphal.  Modern  Protestants,  as  far  as  they  still  believe  in 
inspiration,  adhere  to  this  opinion.  With  reference  to  the  New 
Testament,  Luther  stated  that  every  man  could  think  what  he 
liked  about  the  Apocalypse,  and  believe  what  his  own  intellect 


208    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

suggested.  He  also  spoke  against  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
that  of  Saint  Jude,  and  particularly  that  of  Saint  James,  but 
he  did  not  absolutely  reject  them.  Later  Lutherans  recognized 
only  the  6)uoXoyov/iei>a,  and  declared  the  seven  others  to  be 
apocryphal,  although  many  at  the  present  day  have  come  back 
to  the  old  opinion.  Rationalistic  Protestants  in  quite  modern 
times  refuse  to  acknowledge  any  inspiration,  and  then  of  course 
the  canon  plays  no  part.1 

Many  refuse  altogether  to  accept  the  dogmatic  conception  of  an  Old 
and  a  New  Testament,  but  abandon  it  as  a  "  measure  taken  from  the 
tool-chest  of  the  Catholic  Church,"  and  regard  the  books  hitherto  called 
canonical  with  many  others  "  extra-canonical "  merely  as  sources  of  in- 
formation for  the  history  of  religion  in  general. 

15.  APOCRYPHAL  BOOKS 

1.  Before  the  time  of  Christ,  and  still  more  frequently  after- 
wards, books  were  written  which  many  people  believed  to  be 
inspired,  but  which  the  Church  never  included  in  the  canon. 
These  are  called  apocryphal. 

The  name  is  borrowed  from  the  religious  books  of  the  heathen,  which 
were  carefully  kept  secret  (d^KpvQos  =  concealed).  The  Christians  seem 
to  have  regarded  all  books  falsely  claiming  to  be  inspired  with  the  same 
sort  of  horror  as  the  secret  religious  writings  of  the  heathen.  The  word 
implies,  therefore,  that  these  books  ought  not  to  be  used,  but  set  apart 
and  not  read  in  the  churches.3 

2.  Among  the  Apocryphal  Writings  of  the  Old  Testament  we 
must  mention  particularly:  (a)  The  Book  of  Henoch,  written  by 
Jews  in  the  second  century  before  Christ.3     (b)  The  Psalms  of 

1  Three  schools  of  thought  regarding  inspiration  are  now  distinguished 
among  Protestants:  Liberal,  Strict  (who,  like  the  older  Protestant  dog- 
matic writers,  believe  in  verbal  inspiration)  and  those  midway  between 
them.  Hitherto  no  one  has  succeeded  in  steering  a  middle  course 
satisfactorily. 

3  Collections  of  Apocrypha:  Fabricius,  Codex  pseud-epigraphus, 
V.  T.;  idem,  Codex  apocryphus,  N.  T.,  Hamburg,  1703-1723;  Thilo, 
Codex  apocryphus,  N.  T.,  Lips.,  1832;  Tischendorf,  Evangelia  apocrypha, 
Lips.,  Ed.  2,  1876;  Acta  apost.  apocr.,  Lips.  1851;  Apocalypses  apocr., 
Lips.,  1866;  Hilgenfeld,  Novum  Test,  extra  canonem  receptum,  Lips., 
1866. 

*  The  complete  text  exists  only  in  Ethiopian,  edited  by  Dillmann  in 
1853.  An  imperfect  Greek  text  was  found  at  Akhmim  in  Upper  Egypt. 


ORIGIN   OF   HOLY   SCRIPTURE  209 

Solomon,  a  collection  of  18  psalms,  that  have  been  preserved 
in  Greek  but  were  composed  in  Hebrew  by  pious  Jews  in  the 
second  century  before  Christ,  (c)  The  third  and  fourth  books 
of  Esdras;  the  third  was  written  before  Christ,  but  the  fourth 
about  100  A.  D.  (d)  The  Prayer  of  King  Manasses,  date 
unknown.  The  two  last  mentioned  books,  (c)  and  (d),  were 
formerly  often  regarded  as  canonical,  and  BO  are  appended  to 
official  editions  of  the  Vulgate. 

3.  The  Apocryphal  Books  of  the  New  Testament  are  very 
numerous.  They  fall  into  two  classes:  (a)  those  written  in 
support  of  heresies,  (b)  harmless  legends  and  similar  works. 

(a)  To  the  apocryphal  books  of  the  first  kind  belong : 

(1)  The  Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews,  used  by  the 
Nazarenes  and  Ebionites,  two  sects  of  Christian  Jews.  The  com- 
mon opinion  of  antiquity  was  that  this  book  was  the  Hebrew 
original  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  but  had  suffered  many 
alterations.  This  view  was  not  shared  by  the  sects  mentioned, 
nor  by  many  modern  critics.1  (2)  The  Gospel  and  Apocalypse  of 
Peter,  and  works  with  Docetic  tendencies,  written  probably  in 
Syria,  in  the  second  century.  A  fragment  of  the  Gospel  was  dis- 
covered in  1892  by  Bouriant  (cf.  Zahm,  Das  Petrusevangelium, 
Erl.  and  Lpz.,  1893).  (3)  The  Gospel  of  Marcion,  a  mutilated 
version  of  Saint  Luke,  dating  from  the  time  of  the  second 
century.  The  Gospel  of  Basilides  seems  to  have  been  a  similar 
work.2 

(6)  Among  the  legends  and  similar  works,  which  are  very 
numerous,  we  may  mention: 

(1)  The  Protoevangelium  of  James,  brother  of  the  Lord. 
The  greater  part  of  this  book  is  concerned  with  Mary,  the 
Mother  of  Christ,  and  the  Wise  Men  from  the  East.  The  story 
is  told  in  a  simple  and  dignified  manner,  and  it  must  be  very 
ancient,  as  Origen  was  acquainted  with  it.  Many  believe  the  con- 

1  Kaulen  regards  it  as  a  re-written  version  of  the  Gospel  of  Saint 
Matthew,  compiled  not  later  than  100  A.  D.    Handmann,  however,  thinks 
it  is  of  independent  origin,  though  related  to  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel.    He 
believes  that  it  was  written  in  Aramaic,  translated  into  Greek  very  soon 
afterwards,  probably  in  Alexandria,  and  kept  on  strictly  Jewish  Christian 
lines. 

2  This  is  mentioned  by  Origen,  Horn,  in  Luc.,  I,  1. 


210    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

tents  of  this  book  to  be  perfectly  true.  (2)  The  Gospel  of  Mco- 
demus,  extant  both  in  Greek  and  Latin,  a  very  dignified  account 
of  Christ's  Passion,  was  highly  esteemed  and  widely  known  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  (3)  The  Ada  Pilati,  a  collection  of  written 
documents  and  reports  concerning  our  Lord's  Passion.  (4)  The 
letter  written  by  King  Abgar  of  Osroene  to  Christ  and  His  reply 
to  it.  This  correspondence  cannot  be  regarded  as  genuine,  for  the 
first  Christian  King  of  that  district  was  Abgar  VIII,  who  only 
ascended  the  throne  in  176  A.  D.  (5)  The  Didache,  i.  e.  teaching 
of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  written  in  Syria  or  Palestine,  and  dis- 
covered in  Constantinople  in  1884.  It  is  quoted  by  many  of  the 
Fathers,  and  was  often  used  in  ancient  times  for  the  instruction  of 
catechumens,  but  as  it  does  not  possess  any  apostolic  credentials, 
Eusebius  (Hist.  EccL,  III,  52)  classes  it  among  the  avn\e<y6peva. 
It  is  important  on  account  of  its  high  antiquity,  for  it  probably 
dates  from  the  first  century.  It  contains  16  chapters  in  Greek. 

(6)  The  Sayings  of  Jesus,  very  recently  discovered,  and  be- 
longing probably  to  the  third  century.     At  first  it  was  sug- 
gested that  these  were  a  part  of  the  \6yia  icvptov,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Papias,  formed  the  groundwork  of  the  Gospel  of  Saint 
Matthew  (see  chapters  on  Matthew)  ;  but  this  view  is  not  tenable. 
We  have  only  six  or  eight  short  utterances,  which  bear  more  re- 
semblance to  Saint  John  than  to  Saint  Matthew;    one,  for  in- 
stance, is  "I  appeared  to  them  in  the  flesh."     The  origin  of 
these  words  is  quite  unknown  (see  Eatholik,  1898,  I  and  II). 

(7)  Tatian's    Diatessaron.      Tatian   was    a    disciple    of    Saint 
Justin  Martyr;    as  the  name  of  his  book  implies,  it  is  a  har- 
mony of  all  the  Gospels;  it  was  written  in  Syrian  about  170  A.  D., 
and  until  400  was  used  in  the  churches  in  Syria,  but  was  then 
removed  and  destroyed,  because  the  separate  gospels  were  ordered 
to  be  read;    hence  not  a  single  Syrian  or  Greek  copy  of  this 
work  has  come  down  to  us.1 

1  This  work,  which  Ephrem  the  Syrian  still  used  instead  of  the  sepa- 
rate Gospels,  was,  as  the  name  implies,  translated  into  Greek,  and  later 
into  Latin,  in  545,  by  Victor,  Bishop  of  Capua.  From  the  Latin  version 
an  old  German  translation  was  made  in  the  ninth  century,  which  is  one 
of  the  earliest  existing  books  in  the  German  language.  The  Augustinian 
Ciasca  discovered  an  Arabic  text  of  the  Diatessaron  in  Rome;  it  was 
published  in  1888  with  a  Latin  translation.  The  book  called  "Our 


ORIGIN   OF   HOLY   SCRIPTURE  211 

Lord's  Testament/'  discovered  and  published  by  Rahmani  in  1899, 
was  originally  written  in  Greek,  and  versions  of  it  are  extant  in  the 
Syrian,  Arabic  and  Ethiopian  languages.  It  must  not  be  classed  with 
the  apocryphal  books,  but  was  compiled  about  475  from  the  Egyptian 
service  book,  and  this  again  from  the  8th  Book  of  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions. 


SECOND  PART 

GENERAL  INTRODUCTION  —  THE   BIBLE 
AS   A   WHOLE 

16.  TRANSITION 

JUST  as  the  Bible  has  not  one,  but  many  authors,  so  all  its 
parts  were  not  written  in  the  same  language,  and  the  sacred 
books  have  not  in  every  case  been  handed  down  in  the  language 
in  which  they  were  composed  but  often  in  translations.  Thus 
for  centuries  the  Old  Testament  was  known  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  only  in  Greek,  but  later  also  in  Latin.  Accordingly, 
when  we  consider  the  Bible  as  a  whole,  we  have  to  consider  (1) 
the  original  text,  (2)  the  translations  of  Holy  Scripture. 

FIRST   SECTION 

THE  ORIGINAL   TEXT   OF  HOLY   SCRIPTURE 
17.   BIBLICAL  LANGUAGES  IN  GENERAL 

Holy  Scripture  was  written  partly  in  Hebrew,  partly  in 
Chaldee,  and  partly  in  Greek;  but  we  do  not  possess  all  the 
books  written  first  in  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  in  their  original 
language.  The  greater  part  of  the  Old  Testament  was  both 
composed  and  preserved  in  Hebrew.  Only  some  portions  of  the 
Book  of  Esdras  (iv.  7-v.  18;  xxii.-xxvi.)  and  about  half  of  the 
Book  of  Daniel  (ii.-vii.)  are  Chaldee. 

The  Books  of  Judith,  Tobias,  Baruch,  Ecclesiasticus  or  Sirach, 
I  Machabees  and  parts  of  Daniel  (iii.  24-90;  xiii.  and  xiv.)  and 
Esther  (x.-xvi.)  were  written  in  either  Hebrew  or  Chaldee,  but 
were  lost  in  their  original  form,  and  have  been  preserved  only 
in  translations,  of  which  the  Greek  Septuagint  is  the  oldest. 
The  Book  of  Wisdom,  second  Machabees  and  the  whole  of  the 


THE    BIBLE   AS    A   WHOLE  213 

NQW  Testament  were  written  in  Greek,  and  have  come  down 
to  us  in  that  language ;  only  the  first  Gospel  was  originally  com- 
posed in  Hebrew  or  Chaldee. 

18.    HEBREW 

I.  Hebrew  is  one  of  a  large  group  of  languages  spoken  in 
Western  Asia,  and  called  generally  the  Semitic  languages.  They 
are  divided  into  four  chief  branches : 

1.  Arabic,  used  in  the  south  of  the  Semitic  speaking  region. 
Closely  allied  to  it  is  Ethiopian,  which,  like  our  languages,  is 
written  and  read  from  left  to  right,  whilst  most  of  the  Semitic 
languages  are  written  from  right  to  left. 

Ethiopian,  too,  was  written  from  right  to  left,  but  the  Ethiopians 
adopted  the  opposite  direction  in  imitation  of  the  Greeks  (Dillmann, 
Aethiop.  Grammatik,  1899). 

2.  Aramaic  is   spoken  in  the  north  of  the  region   of  the 
Semitic  languages.    It  is  divided  into  Eastern  Aramaic,  or  Syriac, 
that  appears  chiefly  in  Christian  literature,  but  also,  though  in 
a  different  form,  in  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  and  Western  Ara- 
maic,  that   occurs   especially   in  later   Jewish   literature    (the 
Targumim,   Palestine   Talmud).      The   Samaritan   belongs    to 
the  same  class.    Western  Aramaic  has  from  ancient  times  been 
called  Chaldee. 

3.  The  Babylonian- Assyrian  language  of  the  far  East  appears 
from  the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  that  have  now  mostly  been 
deciphered,  to  have  been  a  Semitic  language,  akin  to  Hebrew.1 

4.  From  the  point  of  view  both  of  geography  and  of  language, 
Hebrew   stands   midway   between   Arabic    and   Aramaic;    and 
Phoenician  or  Punic  is  closely  allied  with  it. 

1  In  the  Keillnscliriftliche  BilliotJiek,  Berlin,  1889,  etc.,  Schrader 
has  brought  out  six  volumes  containing  most  valuable  information  re- 
garding the  history  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  which  is  so  closely  con- 
nected with  the  Gold  Testament.  "  At  a  time  when  all  the  resources  of 
scholarship  are  marshaled  to  throw  discredit  upon  the  historical  char- 
acter of  the  Old  Testament,  divine  Providence  has  confirmed  its  accuracy 
by  means  of  documents  which  lay  forgotten  for  thousands  of  years  under- 
ground, but  were  only  concealed,  being  indestructible."  Thus  Kaulen,  in 
the  Lit.  Handweiser. 


214    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

With  the  exception  of  Arabic,  all  these  languages  are  at  the  present 
time  quite  or  very  nearly  (Syriac)  extinct.  Arabic  has  a  script  of  its 
own,  like  Ethiopian  and  Syriac;  Samaritan  still  uses  the  old  Semitic  or 
Phoenician  alphabet,  with  which  the  sacred  books  were  originally  writ- 
ten. Babylonian-Assyrian  has  cuneiform  characters;  Chaldee  had  at 
one  time,  like  Hebrew,  the  old  Semitic  or  Phoenician  alphabet,  but  after 
the  Captivity  the  "  Square-script "  was  used  in  writing  both  languages, 
being  simpler  than  the  old  Semitic.  It  is  also  called  the  Assyrian  script, 
and  this  name  refers  to  its  origin  in  the  lands  near  the  Euphrates,  not 
specially  in  Assyria.  The  various  Semitic  languages  are  as  closely  con- 
nected with  one  another  as  are  the  Romance  or  the  Teutonic  languages. 
There  are  great  resemblances  between  them  both  in  vocabulary  and 
grammar. 

With  regard  to  the  importance  of  the  study  of  these  languages  see  the 
words  of  Pope  Leo  XIII,  p.  173. 

II.  Even  in  the  oldest  books,  Hebrew  appears  as  a  fully 
developed  language,  and  it  retained  this  character  for  about  a 
thousand  years.1  With  the  Babylonian  Captivity  (about  600  B.C.) 
the  language  began  to  fall  into  decay,  and  gradually  ceased  to 
be  used  by  the  people,  giving  place  to  the  Chaldee,  that  they  had 
learnt  in  exile. 

19.   CHALDEE 

One  of  the  Semitic  languages  is  known  by  this  name  because 
it  originally  developed  in  the  land  of  the  Chaldaeans,  i.  e.  in 
ancient  Babylonia.  The  Jews  used  it  during  and  after  the 
Babylonian  Captivity,  for  at  the  time  that  they  were  taken 
into  exile  it  was  the  ordinary  means  of  communication  between 
all  the  Semitic  nations,  and  it  remained  so  even  under  the 
Persian  supremacy  (Esdr.  iv.-vii.),  and  was  not  much  affected 
by  the  introduction  of  Greek  under  Alexander  the  Great.  Ac- 
cording to  Nehemias  viii.  9,  it  was  necessary  to  translate  the 
book  of  the  Law,  when  it  was  read  aloud  to  the  people;  hence 
Hebrew  was  no  longer  understood.  The  small  portions  of  the 
Bible  which  are  written  in  Chaldee  (=  Aramaic,  Dan.  ii.  4, 

1  We  know  nothing  as  to  the  earliest  forms  of  Hebrew;  for  nothing 
older  than  the  Pentateuch  has  come  down  to  us.  However,  this  book  with 
its  archaisms  is  undoubtedly  very  old  (see  p.  270),  though,  as  it  has  fre- 
quently been  re-written,  many  of  its  oldest  forms  of  speech  may  have 
been  lost.  We  can  recognize  three  periods  in  the  language,  —  that  of  the 
time  of  Moses,  that  of  David  and  Solomon,  and  that  of  the  Captivity. 


THE   BIBLE   AS    A   WHOLE  215 

form  the  oldest  extant  memorials  of  this  language. 
As  in  them  it  displays  considerable  perfection,  it  must  have 
been  in  process  of  development  for  a  long  previous  period,  of 
which  no  records  remain.  Many  of  later  date  still  survive, 
especially  from  the  time  of  Christ  until  500  A.  D.  To  this 
period  belong  the  Targumim,  i.  e.  translations  or  paraphrases  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible,  which  were  required  for  use  in  the  syna- 
gogues, and  the  chief  part  of  the  Talmud.  At  the  time  of 
Christ  Chaldee  was  the  language  usually  spoken,  and  our 
Saviour  Himself  used  it,  as  appears  from  several  expressions 
occurring  in  the  Gospels  (e.g.  Talitha  qumi,  Kepha,  abba).1 

In  the  New  Testament  Chaldee  is  called  Hebrew.  John  xix. 
20,  Acts  xxii.  2. 

20.   GREEK 

The  Greek  that  we  have  in  the  Bible  is  not  the  classical  Greek, 
but  a  dialect  that  developed  after  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great  in  the  countries  that  he  had  conquered,  and  chiefly  in 
Northern  Egypt.  It  is  often  called  "  Macedonian- Alexandrian  "  2 
or  KOLvrj  StaXetfro?.  The  Jews  in  Egypt  translated  their  sacred 
books  from  the  original  Hebrew  or  Chaldee  into  this  dialect, 
and  some  sacred  books  were  written  in  it.  The  whole  of  the 
New  Testament  is  in  Greek  of  this  kind,  because  the  various 
writers,  though  not  living  in  Egypt,  adopted  the  language  of  the 
Septuagint,  which  was  known  all  over  the  world  and  used  also  in 
Palestine.  Biblical  Greek  has  two  chief  peculiarities:  it  con- 
tains a  good  deal  of  Semitic  coloring,  and  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment many  Latinisms.  If  the  Greek  books  in  the  Bible  are 
compared  with  others  of  the  same  date,  written  in  the  Alex- 
andrine dialect,  they  all  show  the  same  idiom.  Language,  there- 
fore, is  a  testimony  to  the  authenticity  of  the  sacred  books  and 
the  purity  of  their  text.  They  may  be  compared  with  many 

1  Sometimes  our  Lord  seems  to  have  spoken  Greek,  especially  with 
Greeks  who  wished  to  make  His  acquaintance  (John  xii.) .    The  Apostles, 
too,  understood  Greek,  though  imperfectly.     Many  people  belonging  to 
the  western  nations  were  living  then  in  Palestine. 

2  Thumb  thinks  that  the  name  "  Macedonian- Alexandrian  "  ought  to 
be  given  up,  for  the  KOIVTI  5td\e/cros  became  the  universal  language  of  the 
Greek  world,  after  the  old  dialects  had  disappeared. 


216    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

apocryphal  writings  and  papyrus  rolls  written  in  Greek  that 
have  been  discovered  in  Egypt. 


21.     ORIGINAL  FORM   OF   THE   TEXT   OF   THE   HEBREW   AND 
CHALDEE  BOOKS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Hebrew  and  Chaldee  are  both  written  in  the  "  square  "  script, 
but  the  square  form  of  the  letters  was  not  the  original  one,  and 
the  earliest  sacred  writers  used  the  old  Semitic  alphabet,  which 
is  generally  called  Phoenician,  although  it  was  not  peculiar  to 
the  Phoenicians,  but  was  common  to  all  Semitic  nations.  We 
know  this  older  kind  of  writing  from  inscriptions  and  coins 
belonging  to  the  Assyrians,  Babylonians,  Moabites  and  other 
nations,  and  also  to  the  Jews.  It  gradually  assumed  two  forms, 
as  in  the  west  the  old  script  was  retained,  and  in  the  east  a 
simpler  script  was  adopted. 

1.  The  Jews  used  the  Phoenician  alphabet  until  the  time 
of  the  Babylonian  Captivity,  after  which  they  used  the  new 
script,  which  is  called  the  Assyrian,  or,  from  the  shape  of  the 
letters,  the  square  £]  script.     The  sacred  books  were  in  course 
of  time  re-written  from  the  older  script  into  the  Q  script;  this 
was  done  perhaps  partly  during  the  Captivity. 

2.  Jewish  tradition  asserts  most  positively  that  Esdras  col- 
lected and  arranged  all  the  extant  sacred  books,  and  that  he  intro- 
duced in  place  of  the  old  Hebrew  or  Phoenician  script  the  As- 
syrian or  square  writing,  in  the  sacred  books  of  course.    If  this 
be  so,  that  priest  who  is  repeatedly  described  in  the  first  and 
second  Book  of  Esdras   (e.g.  I  Esdr.  vii.  6,  11,  12)   as  "the 
scribe  instructed  in  the  words  and  commandments  of  the  Lord," 
must  have  been  engaged,  of  course  with  others,  in  rewriting 
the  sacred  books. 

In  the  oldest  script  the  words  were  not  divided,  but  the  text 
ran  on  without  interruption.  Vowel  points  were  unknown  in 
manuscripts  until  at  least  the  fifth  century  after  our  Lord. 
Therefore,  according  to  our  ideas,  the  earlier  text  was  very 
defective,  and  it  was  only  by  means  of  tradition  that  the 
reading  and  understanding  of  the  sacred  books  could  be  con- 
tinued in  the  Jewish  schools.  Such  schools  existed  at  the  time 


THE   BIBLE   AS   A   WHOLE  217 

of  Christ  chiefly  in  Jerusalem  and  Alexandria;  later  on  there 
were  schools  at  Tiberias,  on  the  Lake  of  Genesareth,  and  in 
distant  Babylon. 

The  Phoenician  script  may  be  regarded  as  a  variety  of  the  Egyptian 
hieratic  writing,  and  it  is  possible  that  Moses  undertook  this  task  of  re- 
writing. As  the  art  of  writing  was  known  in  the  time  of  the  Patriarchs, 
long  before  Moses,  the  Semitic  alphabet  may  have  originated  in  Baby- 
lonia. The  very  plausible  theory  has  been  suggested  that  in  the  East,  at 
a  very  early  period,  a  kind  of  square  script  was  common  as  well  as  the 
cuneiform  writing,  whilst  in  the  West  the  so-called  Phoenician,  originat- 
ing in  Egypt,  came  into  use.  It  is  well  known  that  the  Phoenician  alpha- 
bet was  carried  to  the  Greeks,  and  through  them  to  all  western  countries. 

Kaulen  assumes  that  the  Septuagint  possessed  the  sacred  books  in  the 
Phoenician  script.  This  appears,  for  instance,  from  Genesis  xlvi.  16, 
where  the  Septuagint  have  Qaaapdv  for  Esban  (p¥N),  because  they  read 
the  Phoenician  Tav  instead  of  Aleph,  whereas  it  would  not  have  been  pos- 
sible to  confuse  J"l  with  N.  Haneberg,  however,  and  Reuss^  as  also  the 
Talmud,  Origen  and  Saint  Jerome,  adhere  to  the  traditional  opinion,  that 
the  square  script  came  into  use  at  the  time  of  Esdras  and  was  used  by  the 
Septuagint.1  That  the  rewriting  into  square  characters  had  been  com- 
pleted long  before  the  time  of  Christ  is  plain  from  Matthew  v.  18. 

The  Synedrium  removed  to  Tiberias  after  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  at  the  same  time  many  Jews  migrated  to  Babylon,  as  they 
found  many  of  their  own  nation  there,  who  had  remained  after  the 
Captivity. 

22.     LATER  FORMS  OF  THE  HEBREW  AND  CHALDEE  TEXT 

1.  In  the  earlier  text  only  the  consonants  were  written,  but 
in  course  of  time,  in  order  to  facilitate  reading,  marks  were 
introduced  to  denote  vowels.  To  alter  the  sacred  text  as  little 
as  possible,  these  marks  were  only  little  dots  or  lines,  placed,  as 
a  rule,  below  the  consonants.  The  practice  of  using  these  vowel 
points  originated  in  the  Rabbinical  school  at.  Tiberias,  and 
became  general  in  the  eighth  century.2  A  text  provided  with 
marks  for  the  vowels  is  called  "pointed,"  and  the  earlier 
mode  of  writing  is  "unpointed."  It  is  certain  that  in  all 

1  F.  Perles  shows,  from  many  mistakes  in  the  text,  that  the  square 
script  was  in  use  at  least  as  early  as  the  third  century  before  Christ. 
Neubauer,  in  "  The  Introduction  of  Square  Characters  in  Biblical  Manu- 
scripts," is  of  the  same  opinion. 

2  Saint  Jerome  complains  of  the  ambiguity  of  the  Hebrew  text,  so  he 
cannot  have  known  any  way  of  marking  the  vowels.    The  Talmud  often 
uses  expressions  showing  that  only  consonants  were  written  when  it  was 
compiled.    It  was  completed  in  the  sixth  century. 


218    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

essentials  this  vowel  pointing  renders  the  meaning  of  the 
Bible  text  correctly,  as  the  Rabbis,  to  whom  we  owe  it,  were 
guided  by  uninterrupted  tradition.1  The  Hebrew  text,  how- 
ever, cannot  claim  to  be  so  perfectly  and  absolutely  correct 
as  to  constrain  us,  where  there  are  various  readings,  to  disre- 
gard all  the  old  translations  (Septuagint,  Vulgate  and  Peshitto) 
and  adhere  solely  to  the  Hebrew  Bible.  The  Greek,  Latin  and 
Syriac  texts  are  actually  older  than  the  pointed  Hebrew.  It 
is  incredible  that  the  text  of  a  dead  language,  written  without 
vowels,  should  for  centuries  invariably  have  been  read  correctly 
even  in  the  smallest  details.  At  the  present  time  it  is  perhaps 
generally  admitted  that  the  Hebrew  text  has  been  corrupted 
in  consequence  of  similar  letters  being  confused2  and  words 
wrongly  divided.  Proper  names  especially  often  seem  to  be 
corrupt.  Thus  the  name  "  Nebukadnezar,"  as  it  often  stands  in 
the  Hebrew  text,  is  less  like  the  form  "  Nabukudurusur  9*  of  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions,  than  is  the  Septuagint  "  Nabuchodono- 
sor,"  which  the  translators  adopted  from  an  earlier  tradition. 
We  cannot  therefore  agree  with  the  Jews  and  the  early  Protes- 
tants, who  generally  prefer  this  text  to  any  translation,  nor  can 
we  follow  Saint  Jerome  in  speaking  of  an  exclusively  hebraica 
veritas. 

The  vowel  points  may  be  left  out  and  the  passage  read  in  a  way  differ- 
ing from  the  traditional  mode  of  the  Jews;  and  the  early  translators 
have  in  many  cases  adopted  other  readings.  We  must  not,  however,  lay 
too  much  stress  upon  this,  as  Jewish  tradition  supports  the  vowels  now 
in  use. 

2.  The  division  of  the  text  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  into  chap- 
ters and  verses  is  not  original,  but  comparatively  recent.  The 
division  into  chapters  is  not  older  than  the  fifteenth  century.  In 

1  There  was  another  less  satisfactory  method  of  pointing  which  came 
from  Babylon.    In  it  the  points  are  generally  above  the  consonants.    Both 
systems  are  based  on  the  usage  of  the  Syrians,  who,  about  the  time  of 
Mahomet,  began  to  add  points  or  dots  to  their  consonantal  writing,  and 
later  adopted  the  Greek  vowels.      (The  so-called  accents  in  the  Hebrew 
text  were  primarily  intended  as  aids  to  the  readers  in  the  synagogues; 
for  us  they  serve  chiefly  as  marks  of  punctuation. 

2  In  the  Phoenician  script,  Aleph  and  Tav,  Beth  and  Kesch,  Jod  and 
Zade  resemble  one  another  very  closely,  and  in  the  square  characters  He 
and  Cheth,  Daleth  and  Resch,  Vav  and  Nun  finale  are  much  alike. 


THE    BIBLE   AS   A   WHOLE  219 

the  thirteenth  century,  about  1206,  Stephen  Langton,  who  was 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  died  in  1228,  began  to  divide 
the  Vulgate  into  chapters,  and  he  was  followed  by  Cardinal 
Hugo  a  Santo  Caro,  who  died  in  1262.  From  the  Vulgate  the 
practice  was  applied  also  to  the  Hebrew  Bible,  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  Cardinal  Hugo  divided  each  single  chapter  into  seven 
sections,  which  he  lettered  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  in  order  to  make 
it  easier  to  find  any  required  passage.  This  method  of  using 
letters  of  the  alphabet  is  still  employed  in  the  missal  and  breviary. 
A  number  was  prefixed  to  each  verse  first  by  Eobert  Stephanus 
(Etienne),  a  printer  in  Paris,  who  in  1551  brought  out  an 
edition  of  the  Bible  in  Greek  and  Latin.  This  arrangement 
was  soon  universally  adopted,  and  the  verses  were  numbered 
then  also  in  the  Hebrew  text. 

3.  Long  before  this  time,  though  within  the  Christian  era, 
the  Israelites  had  divided  the  books  of  the  Bible  into  sections, 
which,  in  the  case  of  the  Pentateuch,  were  called  Parashioth. 
These  divisions  were  made  for  convenience  in  reading  the  Law 
in  the  synagogue;  one  parashe  was  read  on  every  Sabbath. 

The  other  sacred  books  are  also  divided  into  sections,  called 
Haphtaroth,  serving  a  similar  purpose.  There  are  85  of  them, 
for  the  Haphtaroth  do  not  include  the  whole  text,  but  only 
part  of  it.  They  stand  in  the  same  relation  to  the  Parashioth 
as  our  epistles  to  the  gospels.  There  is  besides  these  a  division 
into  sedarim,  i.  e.  classes,  rows,  which  is  carried  through  the 
whole  Hebrew  canon.  It  was  made  by  Jewish  scholars  to  aid 
them  in  making  grammatical  and  critical  comments  on  the 
sacred  text. 

ParasTi  (nifh3,  from  parash,  to  divide,  separate)  means  a  section. 
The  signification  of  Haphtarah  seems  to  be  the  same,  as  it  comes  from 
patar  OB3,  to  split,  divide).1 

The  Pentateuch  is  divided  into  fifty-four  Parashioth,  which  are  called 
open  or  closed,  according  as  they  commence  at  the  beginning  of  a  line  or 
in  the  middle  of  it.    In  Hebrew  Bibles  we  often  find  marks  3  2  3  or  D  D  D 
to  denote  parascha  petucha  =  open  parash,  or  parascha  sethuma  =  closed 
parash,  respectively. 


1  Theile,  Biblia  heb.,  §  1232,  says,  however,  that  haphtarah  means  dis- 
missal, because  it  was  read  at  the  conclusion  of  divine  worship.  Hence 
the  reader  is  called  Haphtarah  maphtir  =  the  one  who  dismisses. 


220    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Smaller  sections  are  also  marked  with  a  or  D .  Every  copy  of 
the  Bible  was  most  exact,  agreeing  with  the  model  even  in  the 
number  of  lines  and  the  shape  of  the  letters. 

23.   THE  MASORA1 

This  name  is  given  to  an  ancient  collection  of  grammatical  and 
critical  remarks  on  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Bible.  They  were 
originally  handed  down  orally  from  generation  to  generation 
in  the  Jewish  schools,  but  as  in  time  the  original  came  to  be- 
long to  a  remote  historical  past,  and  it  grew  increasingly  difficult 
to  understand  it,  the*  danger  of  corruption  in  the  text  increased 
also,  and  consequently  these  notes  were  written  down.  Most 
of  them  contain  instructions  for  reading  the  sacred  text,  hence 
the  Masora  is  defined  as  the  record,  committed  to  writing,  of  the 
traditional  rabbinical  teaching  as  to  the  form  and  reading  of  the 
Hebrew  books  of  the  Bible. 

The  scholars,  who  gave  rise  to  the  Masora,  are  called  Masoretes,  and 
the  text  corresponding  with  their  rules  is  known  as  the  Masoretic. 

Of  particular  importance  are  the  Masoretic  notes,  which  come 
under  the  Chaldee  heading  qeri  (—  qere  =  "  read  "  or  "  should 
read")  and  contain  corrections  of  the  text.  They  were  always 
written  on  the  margin  of  the  copies  of  the  Bible,  when,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  Masoretes,  something  had  come  down  to  them 
in  an  inaccurate  form.  The  wrong  word  in  the  text  is  called 
Jcethib  (—written).  However,  a  q$ri  is  not  always  a  real 
emendation  of  the  text,  for  not  unfrequently  the  kethib  shows 
the  correct  reading.  Of  minor  importance,  though  not  without 
value,  are  the  often  trivial  observations  on  the  text  of  the  Bible 
which  occur  in  the  Masora.  It  notes  the  number  of  verses  in 
each  book,  and  states  which  is  the  middle  word  or  sentence  in  it. 

For  instance  a  note  of  this  kind  on  Genesis  is :  "  The  number  of 
verses  in  the  book  Bereschith  is  1534,  and  the  middle  of  it  is:  '  Thou  shalt 
live  by  the  sword '  ( Gen.  xxvii.  40 ) ,  and  the  number  of  its  Parashioth  is 
12.'*  On  Jeremias  the  note  states  that  the  book  contains  1365  verses,  and 


or  rniDD,  masora  or  massora  =  tradition,  from  the  Chaldee 
-)DD,  to  hand  down. 


THE    BIBLE   AS    A   WHOLE  221 

the  words  "  And  Ananias  spoke  "  occur  in  the  middle  of  it.  Other  re- 
marks of  this  kind  are :  "  In  the  Pentateuch  there  are  two  verses  that 
begin  with  Samech,  and  eleven  verses  in  which  the  first  and  the  last  letter 
is  Nun.  .  .  .  There  are  eight  verses  in  the  book  in  which  the  word 
chattaa  [sin]  is  construed  with  asa  [to  do],"  etc.  The  Masora  actually 
states  how  often  each  letter  of  the  alphabet  occurs  in  the  Bible,  —  for 
instance,  that  Gimel  occurs  29,537  times. 

These  remarks  so  fenced  in  the  sacred  text  that  afterwards 
it  could  not  be  altered,  but  their  comparatively  late  origin 
diminishes  the  value  of  the  notes  in  the  Masora;  none  of  them 
are  earlier  than  the  Christian  era.  Even  if,  since  the  Masora 
has  existed,  the  Hebrew  text  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews  has 
undergone  practically  no  alteration,  yet  we  cannot  say  for  cer- 
tain that  at  an  earlier  period,  either  soon  after  our  Lord's  life 
or  even  before  it,  some  error  may  not  have  slipped  in  here  and 
there,  which  has  been  perpetuated  forever  by  the  Masora.  That 
such  errors  exist  appears  frequently  from  comparison  with  the 
Septuagint,  as  well  as  from  parallel  passages  in  the  Hebrew 
text  itself. 

For  instance,  in  Psalm  cxlv.,  which  is  alphabetical,  the  verse  beginning 
with  3  is  wanting  in  the  Hebrew,  though  it  exists  in  the  Septuagint, 
Peshitto  and  Vulgate :  TTHTTOS  ( JDM  )  Kvpios  KT\. 

Joachin  ( Jechonias)  when  he  ascended  the  throne  was  eight  years  old 
according  to  II  Chronicles  xxxvi.  9,  while  his  age  is  given  correctly  as 
eighteen  in  IV  Kings  xxvi.  8.  Cf.  Kaulen  I,  77,  Cornill,  293,  etc. 

Antiquity  of  the  Masora.  We  have  no  trustworthy  testimony 
from  ancient  times  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Masora.  Jewish 
scholars  have  asserted  Moses  himself  to  have  been  the  author 
of  the  Masora,  whilst  Esdras  subsequently  added  to  it.  The 
earlier  Christian  scholars  believed  that  Esdras,  and  afterwards 
the  Synedrium,  had  most  to  do  with  writing  the  Masora.  At 
the  present  time  the  universal  opinion  is  that  it  was  the  work 
of  Jewish  Eabbis,  written  between  the  fifth  and  ninth  cen- 
turies. 

As  all  the  notes  in  the  Masora  are  not  of  equal  importance, 
extracts  have  been  made  for  the  convenience  of  readers,  and 
thus  the  great  and  the  little  Masora  came  into  being. 

The  Masoretic  remarks,  only  a  small  part  of  the  whole,  occurring  in 
the  Hebrew  editions  of  the  Bible,  are  not  pointed.  As  a  key  to  their  inter- 


222    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

pretation  we  have  the  Claws  Masoretica  in  Theile's  editions  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  Leipzig.  The  whole  Masora  is  printed  in  Bomberg's  Bible  (Venice, 
1518,  and  in  Buxtorf's  (Bale,  168).  The  most  recent  but  incomplete  edi- 
tion of  the  Great  Masora  was  brought  out  by  Frensdorff,  Hanover,  1867. 
The  whole  mass  of  Masoretic  notes  was  collected  by  Ginsburg,  4  vols., 
London,  1880-1885. 


24.   HEBREW  MANUSCRIPTS  AND  PRINTED  EDITIONS 

As  the  Masoretic  text  is  not  absolutely  correct,  it  has  been 
necessary  to  seek  means  for  its  emendation.  These  seemed  to 
be  the  manuscripts  dating  from  centuries  antecedent  to  the 
invention  of  printing,  and  preserved  here  and  there,  especially 
in  synagogues.  Many  of  them  have  been  collected  and  ex- 
amined. The  scholars  who  deserve  particular  recognition  for 
their  labors  are  the  following : 

1.  Norzi,  an  Israelite  living  at  Mantua  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  collected  a  large  number  of  manuscripts  of  the  Bible 
and  the  Masora,  and  used  them  in  preparing  an  edition  of  the 
Bible  that  was  printed  in  1742,  in  Mantua. 

2.  Benjamin  Kennicott,  an  Englishman,  collated  over  600 
of  the  oldest  and  best  Hebrew  manuscripts  and  about  40  of 
the  earliest  printed  Bibles,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  out 
a  critical  text-edition.    This  appeared  in  Oxford,  1776  and  1780, 
in  two  folio  volumes.     Notice  was  taken  in  it  only  of  the 
consonants. 

3.  Bernardo  de  Rossi,  an  Italian,  acquired  possession  of  about 
700  ancient  Hebrew  manuscripts;    and  in  addition  he  collated 
many  others,  in  order  to  construct  a  text  of  the  greatest  possible 
accuracy.     He  paid  attention  also  to  the  pointing.     The  result 
of  his  investigations  was  published  in  his  work,  Varice  lectiones 
Vet.  Test,  Parmse,  1784-88. 

All  these  workers  did  not,  however,  attain  the  end  that  they 
desired.  They  had  hoped  by  examining  and  comparing  so  many 
old  manuscripts  to  be  able  to  form  a  text  differing  considerably 
from  the  traditional  Jewish  version.  They  expected  to  find 
one  in  complete  agreement  with  the  Septuagint,  from  which  the 
Masoretic  text  frequently  varies,  although  not  in  the  matter 
of  dogmatic  importance.  These  hopes  were  not  fulfilled;  not 


THE   BIBLE   AS   A   WHOLE  223 

indeed  because  the  Masoretic  text  is  perfectly  correct,  but  be- 
cause all  the  manuscripts  hitherto  discovered  only  reproduce  the 
Masoretic  text,  as  it  was  fixed  in  the  early  part  of  the  Christian 
era,  in  accordance  with  older  manuscripts. 

That  at  this  time  very  particular  attention  was  paid  to  the  Hebrew 
text,  probably  because  of  the  strife  with  Christianity,  appears  from 
the  Talmud,  which  was  compiled  in  the  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  centuries. 
It  contains  precise  rules,  like  those  in  the  Masora,  for  preventing  all  cor- 
ruption of  the  text  of  the  Bible.  As  to  the  date  when  the  present  Hebrew 
text  was  definitely  fixed,  the  following  may  be  said :  The  Septuagint  and 
the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  are  based  upon  older  versions,  since  they  fre- 
quently differ  from  the  Masoretic  text.  Onkelos  and  Jonathan  (in  the 
time  of  Christ)  differ  considerably  from  it;  but  on  the  other  handAquilas, 
Theodotion  and  Symmachus  (in  the  second  century)  show  great  resem- 
blance to  the  Masoretic  text,  as  do  the  later  Targumin.  Saint  Jerome 
used  a  text  that  was  almost  identical  with  our  own.  We  may  assume, 
therefore,  that  the  Jews  fixed  their  text  soon  after  the  time  of  the 
Apostles.  Stade  says  that  this  was  certainly  not  done  until  after  the 
year  70,  and  then  the  work  was  performed  in  a  very  slipshod  manner,  as, 
instead  of  collating  several  texts,  the  compilers  simply  put  together  a 
copy  of  the  Bible  from  the  manuscripts  that  they  happened  to  have  at 
hand,  and  this  manuscript  thenceforth  was  the  one  copied  and  regarded 
as  containing  the  settled  text.  Hence  the  unequal  characters  of  the  vari- 
ous books.  Cornill  thinks  that  the  Jews  fixed  their  text  about  the  year 
90,  in  Jabne  (Jamnia),  where  there  was  a  famous  school,  and  it  was  de- 
cided at  that  time  which  books  should  be  recognized  by  the  Jews,  and 
the  Greek  books  were  rejected.  Stade  and  Cornill  base  their  arguments 
upon  Lagarde,  who  tried  to  prove  that  all  the  Hebrew  manuscripts, 
hitherto  discovered,  can  be  traced  back  to  a  single  original,  which  was  so 
absolutely  regarded  as  the  standard  that  every  mistake  and  every  acci- 
dental inperfection  was  reproduced  in  each  copy. 

Strack  does  not  accept  this  theory. 

The  Hebrew  manuscripts  hitherto  discovered  are  not  very 
old.  Most  of  them  go  back  only  to  the  twelfth  century,  and 
only  one  single  manuscript,  containing  the  prophetical  books, 
has  been  found  that  goes  back  to  916  A.  D.,  and  one,  containing 
the  whole  Hebrew  Bible,  was  written  in  1009.  The  latter  was 
discovered  in  the  Crimea,  and  is  now  in  St.  Petersburg.1  The 
oldest  Hebrew  manuscript  in  Germany  is  the  so-called  Eeuchlin 
Codex  in  Carlsruhe;  it  was  written  in  1105.  Hitherto  no  trace 
has  been  discovered  of  any  manuscripts  earlier  than  the  Masoretic, 

1  In  February,  1903,  the  news  was  brought  from  Cairo  of  the  discovery 
of  a  Hebrew  parchment  manuscript  containing  the  Pentateuch,  written  in 
735  A.  D.  in  Samaritan  (or  early  Semitic)  characters. 


224,    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

or  written  before  the  Christian  era;   and  it  would  be  only  from 
such  that  we  could  hope  to  construct  another  text. 

Many  have  a  date,  but,  where  this  is  not  the  case,  the  age  can  be  deter- 
mined from  various  indications.  The  manuscripts  taken  from  synagogues 
are  all  rolls  (volumina)  and  not  pointed;  those  belonging  to  private  per- 
sons are  mostly  books  ( codices )  like  our  own,  and  contain  vowels,  accents 
and  Masoretic  notes.  Cf.  Comely,  Comp.,  p.  66. 

Of  critically  important  printed  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
in  addition  to  the  works  of  the  three  scholars  named  above,  the 
following  deserve  mention: 

1.  The  Alcala  Bible,  Complutensis?  is  a  polyglot,  the  famous 
work  of  Cardinal  Ximenez;  it  was  published  at  Alcala  in  1517. 
The  Hebrew  text  in  it  is  based  upon  manuscripts  that  were  pur- 
chased for  over  4000  golden  guldens. 

2.  Daniel  Bomberg's  editions,  which  appeared  at  Venice  from 
1518  onwards.    The  most  famous  is  one  that  was  published  under 
the  direction  of  Jacob  ben  Chajim,  one  of  the  most  learned  Jews 
of  his  time.    This  and  the  Alcala  Bible  have  served  as  the  basis 
for  most  of  the  later  editions.     They  were  used  in  the  com- 
pilation of  the  Hebrew  text  of  several  polyglot  Bibles,  published 
(1)  at  Antwerp  (1569-1572),  (2)  at  Paris  (1629-1645),  and 
(3)  in  London  (1657,  etc.).    The  elder  Buxdorf,  too,  based  his 
edition  of  the  Bible  (Bale,  1618  and  1619)  upon  Bomberg. 

3.  An  amended  version  of   Chajim's  text  is   contained  in 
Johann  Leusden's  edition,  printed  at  Amsterdam  in  1661  by 
Joseph  Athias,  and  also  in  Everard  van  der  Hought's  edition, 
Amserdam,  1705.    Upon  the  latter  are  based  two  more  modern 
smaller  editions,  viz.,  Hahn's,  Leipsig,  1839,  and  Theile's,  Leip- 
zig, 1849. 

4.  Bar's  editions,  containing  all  the  Hebrew  books  of  the 
Old  Testament   (Leipzig,  1869-1892),  were  prepared  with  the 
use  of  the  Masora,  some  good  manuscripts  and  the  best  printed 
editions.2 

1  Complutum  is  the  older  name  of  Alcala  in  Spain. 

2  The  Hebrew  text  of  the  Psalms,  with  Saint  Jerome's  Latin  transla- 
tion made  directly  from  it,  was  edited  in  1876  by  Bar,  Delitzsch  and 
Tischendorf.    Cf.  with  it  Ik.  Ecker,  Psalterium  juxta  Hebraos  Hieronymi, 
Treves,  1906;   a  valuable  work  on  the  textual  criticism  of  the  Psalms. 


THE   BIBLE   AS    A   WHOLE  226 

A  new  edition  of  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament,  with  critical 
notes  by  P.  Haupt  of  Baltimore,  has  been  appearing  since  1893,  pub- 
lished by  Hinrichs  at  Leipzig.  The  edition  is  the  result  of  many  years' 
work,  and  many  German  and  English  scholars  have  collaborated  in  its 
preparation.  The  "  genuine  "  and  "  spurious  "  passages  are  distinguished 
by  the  use  of  ink  of  various  colors.  Thus  Genesis,  for  instance,  is  in 
eight  colors,  Josue  seven,  Esdras  and  Nehemias  nine,  and  Chronicles  in 
four.  Hence  the  book  is  known  as  the  "  Rainbow  Bible."  Among  the 
collaborators  may  be  mentioned  Cornill,  Kautzsch,  Stade  and  Wellhausen. 


25.   VALUE  OF  THE  MASORETIC  TEXT 

In  the  early  centuries  of  Christianity  it  was  often  said  that  the 
Jews  had  falsified  the  Hebrew  text,  in  order  to  supply  them- 
selves with  a  weapon  against  the  Christians,  and  that  this  was 
apparent  from  the  Septuagint  version.  Justin  Martyr  and 
Origen,  especially,  brought  such  charges  against  the  Jews,  but 
Saint  Jerome  decidedly  refused  to  admit  any  such  suspicion, 
and  no  one  in  fact  has  succeeded  with  any  certainty  in  proving 
the  presence  in  the  text  of  a  single  intentional  falsification.1 

On  the  whole,  the  Masoretic  text  deserves  great  respect  (cf. 
Leo  XIII  on  the  Holy  Scriptures,  above,  p.  167).  At  the  same 
time  it  cannot  claim  that  its  accuracy  is  above  all  criticism,  as 
has  already  been  shown  (p.  220).  It  is  very  probable  that  be- 
fore the  Masoretic  text  was  fixed,  and  whilst  the  Septuagint 
was  most  esteemed  by  the  Jews,  the  original  text  underwent 
somewhat  careless  treatment.  This  appears  not  only  on  com- 

1  In  Psalm  xxi.  17  the  reading  kaari  instead  of  Jcaaru,  which  the 
Septuagint  read,  is,  however,  very  suspicious.  According  to  the  Septua- 
gint, the  passage  means:  "They  have  pierced  my  hands  and  my  feet"; 
according  to  the  Masoretic  text :  "  As  a  lion  my  hands  and  feet."  There 
must  have  been  a  verb  in  the  passage,  perhaps  =n&O  ("1X3  =  *TD)  or  n^S 
or  n3  (from  rH3)  =  they  have  pierced,  or  UKD  (from  jND,  to  dig 
through ) . 

On  the  ground  of  the  resemblance  between  Aleph  and  Tav  in  the 
ancient  script,  F.  Perles  (Analekten  zur  Textkritik  des  A.  T.,  1895)  pro- 
poses to  read  }"1FO  =  "  they  have  shut  in."  But  what  would  be  the  mean- 
ing of  "  they  have  shut  in  my  hands  and  feet "  ?  There  is  a  similar  pas- 
sage in  Psalm  ex.  3,  where  the  allusion  undoubtedly  is  to  the  eternal 
generation  of  the  Messias.  The  Septuagint  read  "  from  the  womb  before 
the  daystar  I  begot  thee,"  but  the  Masoretic  text  "  from  the  womb  of  the 
sky  in  the  morning  [comes]  to  thee  the  dew  of  thy  youth,"  which  has  no 
sense  at  all. 


226    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

paring  it  with  the  text  of  the  Septuagint,  but  also  from  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  which  is  of  very  early  origin,  as  it  is 
still  written  in  Phoenician  characters;  in  many  places  it  agrees 
with  the  Septuagint  rather  than  with  the  Masoretic  text. 
This  text,  therefore,  and  then  the  early  translations  (Septua- 
gint and  Peshitto  especially)  are  of  assistance  in  criticising 
and  correcting  the  present  Hebrew  text.1 

26.    THE  ORIGINAL  TEXT  OF  THE  GREEK  BOOKS  OF 
THE  BIBLE 

The  Greek  books  of  the  Bible  came  into  existence  at  a  less 
remote  period  than  the  Hebrew  books,  but  nevertheless  the 
originals,  and  earliest  copies  of  them  also,  have  long  been  lost. 
The  originals  were  no  longer  extant  in  the  third  century  as 
is  plain  from  the  writings  of  Origen,  Clement  of  Alexandria 
and  Tertullian,2  who  complain  of  difficulties  occurring  in  their 
copies  of  the  Bible,  and  of  their  having  to  take  pains  to  dis- 
cover the  correct  text  by  comparing  parallel  passages  and  other 
means.  Had  the  originals  still  existed,  it  would  have  been  quite 
simple  for  these  writers  to  consult  them,  or  to  employ  others 
to  do  so.  Tertullian  especially  would  have  been  able  to  save 
himself  a  great  deal  of  trouble  if  he  could  have  appealed  to 
the  originals  against  Marcion,  who  tampered  with  the  Bible. 

The  early  loss  of  the  originals  is  probably  due  to  want  of 
durability  in  the  Egyptian  vegetable  paper,  which  was  uni- 
versally used  for  writing  purposes  in  the  time  of  our  Lord 
and  the  Apostles.  Cf.  II  John  12.  "Having  more  things  to 
write  unto  you,  I  would  not  by  paper  and  ink,  for  I  hope  that 
I  shall  be  with  you."  Many  manuscripts  perished,  too,  during 
the  persecutions  of  the  Christians.  In  spite  of  all  this,  how- 

1  In  translating  the  Bible  even  Luther  preferred  the  Greek  text  to  the 
Masoretic,  but  he  did  so  apparently  not  so  much  because  he  thought  the 
latter  less  valuable  as  because  Hebrew  was  not  his  strong  point. 

a  Reference  is  occasionally  made  to  Tertullian,  De  Prescript.,  c.  35, 
where  he  states  that  the  Apostles'  authenticce  still  existed  in  his  time  at 
Corinth,  Philippi,  etc.  The  word,  however,  does  not  mean  the  Apostles' 
autograph  writings,  but  only  the  Greek  text  as  distinguished  from  the 
Latin  translation. 


THE   BIBLE    AS    A   WHOLE  227 

ever,  an  attempt  to  ascertain  the  correct  text  is  much  easier  in 
the  case  of  the  Greek  books  than  in  that  of  the  Hebrew,  as  we 
still  possess  ancient  Greek  manuscripts  dating  from  the  early 
centuries.  Moreover,  the  oldest  translations  are  very  useful  in 
helping  us  to  determine  the  text,  and  the  numerous  biblical 
quotations  occurring  in  the  writings  of  the  Fathers  and  ecclesi- 
astical authors  serve  the  same  purpose.  Quotations  are  not 
a  very  safe  guide,  as  early  writers  generally  quoted  from  mem- 
ory, and  consequently  rendered  the  text  inaccurately. 

27.   THE  GREEK  MANUSCRIPTS 

In  the  period  immediately  following  the  invention  of  printing, 
whenever  a  Bible  was  to  be  produced  the  first  manuscript  that 
came  to  hand  was  printed;  and  the  more  the  Bibles  were 
distributed  the  more  did  they  seem  to  differ.  The  spirit  of 
rivalry,  however,  constrained  scholars  to  have  recourse  to  older 
and  more  numerous  manuscripts,  and  thus  in  course  of  time 
many  old  manuscripts  were  brought  to  light  and  used. 

The  older  a  manuscript  the  greater  is  its  value,  as  it  stands 
closer  to  the  original,  and  there  is  less  fear  of  corruption  in 
the  text,  which  very  easily,  though  it  may  be  unintentionally, 
creeps  in  when  a  book  is  frequently  copied. 

All  the  ancient  Greek  manuscripts  of  the  Bible  that  have 
hitherto  been  discovered  are  in  book  form  (codices) ;  rolls 
(volumina)  have  not  so  far  been  found.  All  (with  the  sole 
exception  of  the  codex  Q.  Paul.)  are  written  on  parchment. 
It  was  only  after  the  Crusades  that  paper  made  of  linen  gradu- 
ally came  into  use. 

The  word  parchment  is  derived  from  Pergamus,  the  name  of  a  town  in 
Asia  Minor,  where  the  art  of  preparing  writing  material  from  the  skins 
of  animals  was  particularly  well  understood.  Parchment  was  costly,  but 
it  had  the  advantage  of  being  durable,  so  that  when  it  was  used  the 
great  trouble  and  expense  of  frequently  copying  the  sacred  books  were 
avoided  and  the  risk  of  originating  mistakes  was  diminished.  Vegetable 
paper  is  less  durable,  and  the  results  of  using  it  had  been  unsatisfactory. 

The  kind  of  writing  employed  in  the  old  manuscripts  of 
the  Bible  differs  very  much  from  our  own.  The  ancients  did 


228    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

not  distinguish  small  letters  and  capitals,  and  until  the  tenth 
century  they  always  wrote  with  what  are  called  uncials  or 
majuscules,  i.  e.  the  letters  resembled  our  capitals  and  were 
not  connected  with  one  another.  Minuscules  came  into  use 
only  in  the  tenth  century,  and  thus  all  the  oldest  manuscripts  are 
uncials.1  Moreover,  ancient  writers  did  not  divide  their  words, 
and  employed  no  punctuation  or  accents.  In  order,  however, 
to  make  it  easier  for  the  reader  to  survey  the  whole,  they  did 
not  write  in  extenso,  but  each  page  of  parchment  was  divided 
into  three  or  four  columns.  After  the  fifth  century  the  sticho- 
metric  mode  of  writing  came  into  use,  in  which  as  much  of 
the  text  was  written  on  one  line  as  was  to  be  read  in  one  breath ; 
this  was  called  a  o-r^o?.2  Later  on,  in  order  to  economize 
space  on  the  costly  material,  the  end  of  each  C-TI^O?  was  marked 
with  a  dot  or  a  little  stroke,  and  the  writing  was  continued  in 
the  same  line.  This  was  the  origin  of  punctuation.  Greek 
accents  came  into  general  use  only  after  the  seventh  century.3 
In  some  manuscripts,  both  profane  and  biblical,  it  is  possible 
to  see  that  the  accents  have  been  added  by  a  later  hand,  and 
were  not  inserted  by  the  original  writer.  The  text  began  to  be 
divided  into  words  in  the  ninth  century.  Its  division  into  chap- 
ters and  verses  is  recent,  as  has  been  shown  on  page  218;  the 
division  into  chapters  dates  from  the  thirteenth,  into  verses 
from  the  sixteenth  century. 

28.   THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  GREEK  MANUSCRIPTS 

The  number  of  ancient  Greek  manuscripts  of  the  Bible 
hitherto  discovered  amounts  to  about  4000.4  They  have  not 

1  LitercB  unciales,  literally,  letters  measuring  an  inch.     Literw  ma- 
jusculce,  minuscules,  large,  small  letters. 

2  vrlxos  =  arrangement,  row,  member,  division. 

8  They  were  intended  originally  to  serve  the  same  sort  of  purpose  as 
the  vowel  points  in  Hebrew,  viz.  they  were  to  preserve  the  Greek  pronunci- 
ation, which  was  in  danger  of  being  lost,  as  ancient  Greek  was  gradually 
dying  out. 

*  Nestle  follows  Scrivener  in  giving  the  number  as  3829,  but  he  adds 
"  most  of  these  are,  however,  recent."  Among  them  are  127  uncials  and 
3702  minuscules.  Only*  30  belong  to  a  period  prior  to  the  seventh  cen- 
tury. This  refers  primarily  to  the  New  Testament 


THE    BIBLE    AS    A   WHOLE  229 

yet  all  been  thoroughly  examined  or  printed.  It  is  likely  that 
treasures  may  still  be  discovered  in  various  places,  particularly 
in  the  East,  but  also  in  Spain  and  Italy. 

The  manuscripts  are  often  only  fragments,  written  on  parch- 
ment that  has  been  used  to  bind  other  books.  Sometimes  the 
Bible  text  has  been  obliterated,  and  other  works  copied  on  the 
same  sheets  of  parchment.  Such  remains  are  called  codices 
rescripti,  or  palimpsests.  When  the  sheets  have  been  used  in 
this  way,  they  have  often  been  separated  and  fastened  together 
again  in  different  order.  • 


=  rubbed  off  again  (^dw  =  to  wipe,  rub).  The  original 
writing  was  wiped  or  rubbed  off,  and  the  parchment  then  smoothed  with 
pumice  stone  to  make  it  fit  for  use  again.  The  old  writing  is  sometimes 
still  legible,  but  sometimes  it  has  to  be  revived  by  means  of  chemicals. 
Often  it  remains  illegible,  and  occasionally  the  chemicals  employed  injure 
the  parchment  and  the  writing  with  it. 

For  the  sake  of  brevity,  uncial  manuscripts  are  generally  designated 
by  Greek  and  Latin  capital  letters,  and  recently  Hebrew  letters  have  also 
been  used;  minuscule  manuscripts  are  numbered.  Indices  are  added  to 
the  capital  letters  to  distinguish  the  manuscripts.  Thus  J  is  a  palimp- 
sest from  Palestine,  now  in  St.  Petersburg;  Jb  is  a  manuscript  in  the 
British  Museum;  51  is  a  minuscule  manuscript  in  Oxford;  422  to  430 
are  minuscles  at  Munich.  To  the  books  of  pericopce  also  Arabic  num- 
bers are  assigned,  as  Evl.  45  in  Vienna  (a  book  of  the  Gospels). 

The  chief  Greek  manuscripts  are  the  following: 
1.  The  Codex  Vaticanus,  B.  It  is  in  the  Vatican  Library  in 
Eome.  It  contains  the  whole  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
with  some  very  small  omissions.  It  is  written  in  three  columns 
and  came  probably  from  Egypt,  dating  from  about  the  time  of 
the  First  Council  of  Nicaea  (325). 

Several  printed  editions  of  this  manuscript  have  appeared,  but  they 
are  not  all  free  from  mistakes.  The  Old  Testament  was  printed  in  Rome 
in  1587,  by  order  of  Sixtus  V.  August  Mai  published  the  whole  codex  in 
1858,  and  Vercellone  brought  out  a  more  accurate  edition  in  1881  in 
Rome. 

The  New  Testament  was  published  by  Loch  a.t  Ratisbon,  in  1862,  and 
by  Tischendorf  at  Leipzig,  in  1867.  An  edition  of  the  New  Testament, 
reproduced  by  photolithography  was  brought  out  by  Cozza-Luzi  in  Rome, 
1889,  and  a  similar  edition  of  the  Old  Testament  in  1890.  We  owe  this 
magnificent  work  to  Pope  Leo  XIII.  As  some  defects  could  still  be  de- 
tected, Pius  X  has  determined  that  a  still  more  accurate  phototype  edi- 
tion shall  be  prepared,  which  will  enable  every  student  to  see  the  exact 
form  of  Codex  B. 


230    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE   BIBLE 

2.  The    Codex   Sinaiticus,   designated  N    by   its   discoverer. 
It   was   found   by    Constantine   Tischendorf    on    February    4, 
1859,  in  Saint  Catherine's  monastery  on  Mount  Sinai.    It  con- 
tains almost  the  whole  of  the   Old  and  New  Testaments  in 
Greek,  and  is  written  in  four  columns.     This  codex,  like  the 
preceding,  belongs  probably  to  the  fourth  century.     It  is  now 
in  St.  Petersburg. 

Tischendorf  believes  this  manuscript  to  be  older  than  the  Vatican 
Codex,  but  others  doubt  its  being  so  old.  It  was  printed  at  St.  Peters- 
burg in  1862;  and  the  New  Testament  was  published  separately  by 
Tischendorf  at  Leipzig  in  1863,  under  the  title,  Novum  Testamentum 
Sinaiticum. 

3.  The  Codex  'Alexandrinus,  A,  in  the  British  Museum  in 
London.     It  was  found  on  Mount  Athos  and  given  to  King 
Charles  I  of  England  in  1628  by  the  Patriarch  Cyrillus  Lucaris. 
It  dates  from  the  fifth  century. 

A  printed  edition  of  the  Old  Testament,  by  Baber,  appeared  in  1816- 
1828;  one  of  the  New  Testament  by  Cowper,  in  London,  1860.  The  miss- 
ing portions  ha-ve  been  supplied  from  R.  Stephanus.  A  photolithographic 
reproduction  of  this  important  codex  has  existed  since  1883. 

4.  Codex  C,  also  called  Regius  or  Parisiensis,  or  Ephrcemi 
rescriptus,  belongs  to  the  same  period.     It  is  in  the  National 
Library  in  Paris. 

Originally  it  contained  the  whole  Old  and  New  Testaments,  but  in  the 
tenth  or  eleventh  century  the  writing  was  obliterated,  and  the  parchment 
used  for  a  copy  of  some  works  of  Saint  Ephrem  the  Syrian.  Much  of 
what  was  written  first  has  in  this  way  become  illegible.  About  two  hun- 
dred leaves  are  left,  containing  the  greater  part  of  the  New  Testament. 
It  was  printed  by  Tischendorf,  1843  and  1845. 

5.  Codex  s.  Matthcei  Dublinensis  rescripts,  Z.     This  con- 
tains the  greater  part  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel,  and  serves 
to  fill  up  the  voids  in  other  manuscripts.    It  resembles  C,  and 
seems  to  belong  to  the  same  period. 

As  the  name  suggests,  it  is  now  in  Dublin,  and  was  printed  there  in 
1801. 

The  following  manuscripts  are  stichometric : 

6.  Codex  Bezce  or  Cantdbrigiensis,  D,  belongs  probably  to 
the  sixth  century.    It  was  found  in  a  monastery  in  Lyons,  and 


THE   BIBLE   AS   A   WHOLE  231 

came  into  the  possession  of  Theodore  Beza,  one  of  the  reformers, 
who  presented  it  in  1581  to  the  University  of  Cambridge. 

This  manuscript  differs  from  the  other  texts  in  a  very  remarkable 
way.  As  it  was  found  at  Lyons,  and  exactly  agrees  with  the  quotations 
made  by  Saint  Irenaeus  from  the  Bible,  it  seems  to  be  based  upon  a  copy 
belonging  to  this  bishop  (177-202).  It  has  received  great  attention  re- 
cently. It  was  printed  by  Scrivener  in  1864. 

7.  Codex  Laudianus,  E,  contains  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
It  is  named  after  the  English  Archbishop  William  Laud,  to 
whom  it  belonged  in  the  seventeenth  century.    It  dates  probably 
from  the  sixth  century  and  is  now  at  Oxford. 

8.  Codex  Claramontanus,  D2,  belongs  to  the  sixth  century, 
and  contains  the  Pauline  epistles.    It  is  now  in  Paris,  and  was 
printed  by  Tischendorf,  Leipzig,  1852.    It  was  brought  from  the 
north  of  Africa,  and  contains  a  list  of  the  canonical  books  (see 
above,  page  206). 

9.  Codex  Rossanensis,  2,  found  at  Kossano  in  Calabria.    It 
belongs  to  the  sixth  century  and  contains  Saint  Matthew's  and 
Saint  Mark's  Gospels.1 

29.   GREEK  PRINTED  EDITIONS 

(a)  Cardinal  Ximenez  in  Spain,  the  editor  of  the  Poly- 
glotta  Complutensis,  was  the  first  to  have  the  Bible  printed  in 
Greek.  His  work  contains  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament  in 
Greek,  according  to  manuscripts  of  the  Septuagint  translation, 
and  also  the  New  Testament,  which  is  based  on  several  Greek 
manuscripts.  The  Greek  text  was  printed  in  1514. 

Almost  at  the  same  time  Erasmus  of  Eotterdam  edited  the 
New  Testament  in  Greek  at  the  instigation  of  the  great  printer, 
Frobenius,  at  Bale.  His  text  is  defective,  as,  in  order  to  out- 
strip the  Cardinal,  he  worked  very  fast,  and  used  only  a  few 

1  This  codex  was  only  discovered  in  1879.  It  is  also  called  Codex 
purpureus,  because  the  parchment  leaves  are  dyed  purple,  and  the  letters 
are  written  in  gold  and  silver.  It  is  of  artistic  and  liturgical  impor- 
tance on  account  of  the  miniatures  in  it.  Another  purple  codex  of  the 
•sixth  century,  containing  a  large  portion  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel,  and 
agreeing  in  its  text  precisely  with  S,  was  discovered  recently  at  Sinope 
in  Pontus  and  placed  in  the  National  Library  in  Paris. 


232    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

newer  manuscripts.  Robert  Stephanus  (Etienne),  the  great 
printer  in  Paris,  in  1546  and  subsequent  years,  brought  out 
several  editions  of  the  New  Testament  in  Greek.  These  were 
based  on  those  of  Erasmus  and  Cardinal  Ximenes,  also  on  Codex 
D  and  some  later  manuscripts. 

The  fourth  edition,  published  in  1551,  was  the  first  in  which  the  verses 
were  divided. 

Stephanus's  editions,  with  a  few  manuscripts  and  some  old 
Oriental  translations,  formed  the  foundation  of  a  Greek  edition 
of  the  New  Testament  that  was  the  work  of  Th.  Beza,  the  re- 
former. This  appeared  first  in  1565,  and  was  reprinted  several 
times. 

Great  but  undeserved  attention  was  paid  to  the  Greek  editions 
of  the  New  Testament  that  were  published  by  the  Elzevir 
Brothers  at  Leyden,  in  and  after  1624.  They  contain  the  text 
of  the  Stephanus  and  Beza  editions,  which  has  many  defects, 
but  as  they  boldly  proclaimed  it  to  be  generally  accepted  and 
perfectly  free  from  mistakes  (textum  ab  omnibus  receptum)  it 
was  held  in  the  highest  honor  among  Protestants  for  nearly 
200  years,  and  was  circulated  in  innumerable  reprints.  At  the 
present  time  it  is  not  considered  important,  but  it  retains  the 
name  textus  receptus,  or  editio  recepta.1 

(b)  The  polyglot  Bibles  published  during  the  seventeenth 
century  in  Antwerp  (by  Plantin),  Paris  and  London,  are 
modeled  on  the  Alcala  Bible,  and,  as  far  as  the  Greek  text 
is  concerned,  are  derived  from  the  following  sources:  The  Ant- 
werp polyglot  follows  the  Complutensis;  the  Paris  polyglot 
simply  reprints  the  Greek  text  from  the  Antwerp  edition;  the 
London  polyglot  follows  the  text  of  the  Septuagint  as  printed 
in  Eome  in  1587,  and  for  the  New  Testament  it  adopts  that  of 
Eobert  Stephanus. 

Two  German  scholars,  Bengel  and  Griesbach,  deserve  espe- 
cial mention  as  editors  of  the  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment during  the  eighteenth  century.  They  used  many  old 
manuscripts  and  produced  a  text  differing  considerably  from 

1  Even  the  English  Bible  Society  in  its  most  recent  editions  has  sub- 
stituted Nestle's  text  for  the  recepta. 


THE    BIBLE   AS   A   WHOLE  233 

the  recepta.     However,  the  reccpta  was  not  set  aside,  though 
it  lost  some  of  its  prestige. 

BengeFs  edition  appeared  first  in  1734  and  Griesbach's  in  1775. 

They  divided  the  existing  manuscripts  into  families,  according  to 
their  place  of  origin,  —  Constantinople  and  Syria,  Egypt,  or  the  West. 
They  cared  less  for  the  number  of  manuscripts  than  for  the  agreement 
of  the  different  families.  A  reading  was  considered  correct  if  it  was  sup- 
ported by  all  the  families,  and  the  consensus  of  two  families  preponder- 
ated over  a  third.  This  classification  has  been  upheld  even  to  the  pres- 
ent time,  especially  by  Westcott  and  Hort  (see  below)  and  the  principle 
has  been  further  developed. 

(c)  In  recent  years  excellent  work  has  heen  done  by  some 
English  and  German  scholars  on  the  text  of  the  New  Testament. 
We  may  mention :  Karl  Lachmann,  died  in  Berlin,  1851 ;  Con- 
stantine  Tischendorf,  died  in  Leipzig,  1874;  Bernard  Weiss 
(Berlin) ;  C.  E.  Gregory  (Leipzig) ;  Tregelles,  died  in  Eng- 
land, 1875;  Westcott  and  Hort  (in  England). 

Lachmann  started  with  the  principle  that  our  aim  should  be, 
not  being  guided  by  the  recepta,  to  restore  the  text  to  the  state 
in  which  it  was  in  the  fourth  century,  as  we  have  no  means  of 
discovering  the  original,  and  as  a  text  of  that  century  can  have 
differed  only  slightly  from  it.  He  hoped  that  other  subse- 
quent workers  might  gradually  be  able  to  restore  the  text 
approximately  as  it  was  in  the  second  century.  His  text  is 
based  chiefly  upon  six  or  eight  of  the  earliest  Greek  manu- 
scripts and  upon  the  Itala.  His  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
appeared  first  in  1831,  and  again  in  1842  and  1850. 

Tischendorf  did  not  regard  Lachmann's  method  as  satis- 
factory, and  thought  that  we  possessed  means  of  going  back 
beyond  the  fourth  century  and  of  very  nearly  discovering  the 
original  text.  He  used  not  only  all  the  manuscripts  that  he 
could  get,  but  also  translations  and  quotations  of  the  Fathers. 
His  critical  edition  of  the  New  Testament  appeared  first  in 
1841  and  1842;  the  eighth  edition  in  1869-1890.  (Pocket 
edition,  sixteenth  edition,  1887.) 

Tregclles,  an  English  philologist,  was  a  Quaker.  He  adhered 
to  Lachmann's  principle  as  a  general  rule,  but  his  apparatus 
criticus  was  far  more  extensive.  His  edition  appeared  in  seven 
parts  between  1857  and  1879.  Still  more  accurate  is  the  edition 


234    HANDBOOK  TOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

prepared  by  two  Englishmen,  Westcott  and  Hort.  It  appeared 
in  1881  and  has  no  references  to  original  sources,  but  the  value 
of  all  the  critical  apparatus  collected  up  to  that  time  is  assigned 
according  to  Griesbach  and  Laehmann's  principles.  These  guid- 
ing principles  are  expounded  in  a  special  volume  bearing  the 
title  "  Introduction,"  1882.1 

A  new  and  independent  revision  of  the  Greek  text  of  the  New 
Testament  has  been  brought  out  in  three  volumes  by  Bernhard 
Weiss  (Berlin,  1894-1900). 

A  new  method  of  arriving,  if  not  at  the  original  text  at  least  as  near 
as  possible  to  it,  was  devised  by  Hermann  Freiherr  von  Soden  in  Berlin. 
The  text  had  hitherto  been  taken  from  the  earliest  uncial  manuscripts  (by 
Tischendorf  also),  but  von  Soden,  with  the  assistance  of  several  friends, 
tried  to  trace  the  alterations  in  it,  and  in  this  way  to  approach  the 
original.  They  examined  1716  manuscripts  of  the  Gospels;  521  con- 
taining Acts  and  the  Catholic  Epistles;  628  containing  Saint  Paul's 
Epistles;  and  219  containing  the  Apocalypse;  and  they  studied,  besides 
these,  many  of  the  earliest  commentaries,  to  which  but  little  attention 
had  previously  been  paid.  In  this  way  they  ascertained  that  the  oldest 
Greek  codices  (B  and  K)  represent  a  revised  version  of  an  earlier  text. 
Instead  of  following  the  traditional  custom  of  designating  the  majus- 
cules by  capital  letters  and  the  minuscules  by  Arabic  numerals,  Soden 
prefers  a  very  much  simpler  method  of  using  the  small  letters  of  the 
Greek  alphabet  and  the  Arabic  numerals,  in  which  he  will  perhaps  find 
others  to  imitate  him.  For  further  information  see  his  work,  Die 
Schriften  des  N.  T.  in  ihrer  altesten  erreicKbaren  Textgestalt,  Berlin,, 
1902,  1903. 

The  labors  of  these  students  have  almost  completely  destroyed  the 
reputation  of  the  recepta,  whilst  they  have  established  the  purity  of  the 
Vulgate  text.2 


1  Westcott  and  Hort  distinguish  four  classes  of  texts:   (a)  the  primi- 
tive text,  as  it  left  the  author's  hands;   (6)  a  text  originating  in  Alex- 
andria;   (c)  a  text  originating  in  Constantinople;    (d)  a  text  brought 
from  Syria  to  the  West  before  200  A.  D. 

2  A  good  and  at  the  same  time  inexpensive  edition  is  O.  v.  Gebhardt's 
New  Testament,  Leipzig,  1895,  based  on  Tischendorf,  Tregelles,  and  West- 
cott and  Hort.     It  does  not,  however,  satisfy  Catholic  requirements  on 
account  of  Mark  xvi.  9,  etc.,  and  John  viii.  3,  etc.     Mention  may  be 
made  of  Nestle's  cheap  edition    (3d  ed.,   1901,   Stuttg.)    and  of  Wey- 
mouth's    (London,  1892).     Tauchnitz  in  Leipzig  has  published  a  very 
convenient  Greek  and  Latin  edition,  revised  in  accordance  with  Gries- 
bach, Lachmann  and  Tischendorf.    It  has  been  approved  by  the  Catholic 
Consistory  in  Dresden. 


THE    BIBLE   AS   A   WHOLE  235 

SECOND    SECTION 

TRANSLATIONS   OF   THE   BIBLE 

30.    GENERAL  REMARKS 

Translations  of  the  books  of  the  Bible  from  the  original  into 
another  language  are  of  importance,  not  only  as  enabling  us 
to  ascertain  the  correct  text,  but  also  as  aids  in  interpreting  the 
Bible,  for  we  see  from  them  how  early  readers  understood  the 
meaning  of  the  original.  All  translations  are  not  of  equal  value. 
As  a  rule,  those  made  from  the  original  surpass  those  made 
from  another  translation  in  importance  and  authority;  literal 
translations  deserve  consideration  more  than  free;  and,  above 
all,  the  old  translations  have  more  weight  than  later  ones. 
Hence  particular  importance  is  attached  to  such  as  were  made 
before  the  seventh  century. 

Early  translations  are  fairly  numerous.  There  are  several 
Greek  and  Chaldee  translations  (of  the  Old  Testament) ;  a 
Samaritan  version  (of  the  Pentateuch),  some  Syriac,  several 
Arabic,  one  Armenian,  one  Persian,  some  Egyptian  (Coptic), 
one  Ethiopian,  one  Slavonic,  one  Georgian,  one  Gothic,  several 
Latin  and  fragments  of  an  Anglo-Saxon  version. 

The  most  important  are  the  Greek,  Syriac  and  Latin  trans- 
lations. 

GREEK  TRANSLATIONS 
31.   SEPTUAGINT 

At  the  time  of  Christ  and  His  Apostles  the  Holy  Scriptures 
were  mostly  read  in  a  Greek  translation  made  in  Egypt  for 
the  use  of  the  Jews  there.  Outside  Palestine,  and  to  some 
extent  in  Palestine  itself,  the  Jews  used  this  version  when  they 
read  the  Scriptures  in  the  synagogues  on  the  Sabbath.  From 
many  quotations  in  the  New  Testament  it  is  clear  that  the 
Apostles  were  more  familiar  with  this  translation  than  with  the 
Hebrew  text,  which  did  not  contain  all  the  sacred  books;  and, 
when  they  converted  pagans  to  Christianity,  they  gave  this  ver- 


236    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

sion  to  their  converts.  Testimony  to  the  respect  paid  to  this 
translation,  and  to  its  universal  use,  is  borne  by  Josephus  Flavius 
(who  always  used  it  himself  in  his  writings),  and  by  Justin 
Martyr,  who,  in  his  conversation  with  the  Jew  Tryphon,  shows 
that  among  the  Jews  this  translation  was  still  accepted  in  the 
second  century,  when  he  lived  (see  above,  p.  201). 

The  name  Septuagint  (LXX)  is  due  to  an  old  story  preserved 
by  Josephus  Flavius  (Antiq.,  XII,  ii.  1,  etc.),  and  by  the  ecclesi- 
astical historian  Eusebius  (Prcep.  Ev.,  viii.  2).  It  originated  in 
a  letter  written  by  Aristeas,  an  official  at  the  Egyptian  court,  to 
his  brother  Philo crates,  in  which  Aristeas  says  that  Demetrius 
Phalereus,  chief  librarian  at  the  royal  library  at  Alexandria, 
advised  his  master,  King  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  to  add  the 
Jewish  law  to  the  treasures  in  his  library.  The  king  was 
pleased  with  the  advice,  and  in  order  to  procure  the  book  of  the 
law,  he  set  200,000  Jews  at  liberty,  and  then  sent  some  men, 
amongst  whom  was  Aristeas  himself,  with  costly  presents  to 
Jerusalem,  in  order  to  fetch  the  book  from  the  high  priest. 
The  latter  not  only  gave  the  book  to  the  envoys,  but  sent  seventy- 
two  learned  Jews  to  Egypt  to  translate  the  Thora.  They  were 
received  honorably  in  Egypt,  and  sent  with  Demetrius  Phalereus 
to  the  neighboring  island  of  Pharos,  where  they  worked  at  their 
translation  undisturbed.  According  to  the  story,  each  man 
was  shut  up  alone  in  a  cell,  and  made  a  translation  by  himself, 
but  when  all  the  results  were  compared,  they  were  found  to  be 
exactly  the  same. 

In  ancient  times  this  story  was  universally  regarded  as  true, 
but  it  cannot  be  correct  in  every  detail,  for  it  contains  fabulous 
additions.  The  truth  probably  is  that  the  translation  was  made 
by  Jews  in  Alexandria,  and  supplied  an  existing  need,  as  the 
Egyptian  Jews  mostly  did  not  understand  Hebrew.  An  Egyp- 
tian king,  probably  not  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (285-247),  who 
banished  Demetrius  Phalereus  soon  after  his  accession,  but, 
according  to  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  I,  22),  his  father, 
Ptolemy  Lagi  (323-285),  admitted  the  Greek  version  of  the 
Jewish  law  into  his  library.  This  occurrence,  flattering  to  the 
Jews,  has  been  connected  with  the  production  of  the  translation. 
Possibly  the  fact  that  the  sacred  writings  had  been  rendered 


THE    BIBLE    AS    A   WHOLE  237 

into  a  heathen  language  displeased  some  Jews,  and  a  story  was 
invented  to  calm  their  indignation. 

In  any  case  the  report  about  the  translation  of  the  LXX  ap- 
plies only  to  the  Pentateuch.  The  other  sacred  books  were 
gradually  translated  into  Greek  in  Egypt,  and  therefore  the 
same  name  of  the  LXX  was  given  to  them  also. 

The  date  of  the  beginning  of  the  translation  may  be  given 
as  about  300  B.  c.  Probably  it  was  prior  to  286,  i.  e.  to  the 
establishment  of  the  library  at  Alexandria,  for  there  were  many 
Jews  in  Egypt  ever  since  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
By  200  B.  c.  the  translation  must  have  been  nearly  completed, 
as  the  translator  of  the  Book  of  Sirach  (Ecclesiasticus)  knew 
a  Greek  text  "of  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  and  the  other 
books,"  and  mentions  it  frequently  in  his  prologue.1 

Character  of  the  Translation.  It  is,  on  the  whole,  faithful 
and  .often  almost  slavishly  literal.  The  Alexandrians  frequently 
translated  the  Hebrew  text  word  for  word;  and  in  this  way 
their  language  became  very  barbarous,  beside  often  distorting 
the  meaning. 

The  Pentateuch  is  best  translated,  and  next  in  order  of  merit  are  the 
books  of  Josue,  Judges,  Ruth,  Chronicles  and  Proverbs.  Less  to  be  com- 
mended is  the  translation  of  the  four  books  of  Kings,  and  of  Esdras, 
Nehemias  and  Esther.  Ecclesiastes  is  translated  too  literally,  Job  too 
arbitrarily.  The  Psalms  and  the  prophetic  writings  are  unsatisfactory, 
and  the  worst  translation  is  that  of  the  Book  of  Daniel,  for  which  reason 
the  Church  did  not  admit  the  Septuagint  version  of  this  prophet  into 
the  Canon,  but  a  later  rendering  by  Theodotion.2 

Taken  as  a  whole,  this  translation  was  and  still  is  of  inesti- 
mable value.  As  the  first  rendering  of  the  written  word  of 
God  from  the  little  known  Hebrew  into  the  widely  diffused 
Greek  language,  it  was  the  first  and  oldest  instrument  by  which 
the  civilized  nations  could  learn  God's  special  revelation.  The 
Jews  carried  this  version  to  the  east  and  to  the  west,  thus 
preparing  the  way  for  the  Apostles,  preaching  and  supporting 

1  His  prologue  shows  that  he  wrote  primarily  only  for  Jews,  and  not, 
as  Loch  and  Reischl  suppose,  also  for  Gentiles. 

2  The  Septuagint  text  of  Daniel  was  consequently  lost,  and  was  only 
recovered  in  the  eighteenth  century.     It  was  printed  in  Rome  in  1772, 
and  it  is  given  in  the  appendix  to  Tischendorf's  edition  of  the  Septuagint. 


238    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

it.  For  us  it  is  valuable,  because  it  forms  an  excellent  means 
for  us  to  control  the  Masoretic  text,  and  to  understand  the 
sacred  books.  In  the  Church  it  has  always  been  highly  es- 
teemed,, and  not  a  few  of  the  Fathers  considered  it  to  be  inspired. 
Many  old  translations  are  based  upon  the  LXX,  such  as  the 
Itala,  the  Coptic,  the  Ethiopian  and  the  Armenian  versions. 
The  Jews  pay  no  attention  to  it  at  the  present  time,  but  that 
is  due  to  their  hostility  towards  the  Church;  at  the  time  of 
Christ  and  still  later,  it  was  valued  very  highly  by  the  Jews, 
even  in  Palestine,  and  it  was  the  work  of  Jews  for  Jews.  The 
Talmud  mentions  it  frequently  with  respect. 

32.   OTHER  GREEK  TRANSLATIONS 

After  Christianity  was  fairly  established,  the  diffusion  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures  increased.  Christians  had  to  defend  their 
faith  against  both  Jews  and  pagans;  and  in  doing  so  they 
generally  appealed  to  the  Septuagint  to  prove  that  the  prophe- 
cies of  the  Old  Testament  had  found  their  fulfillment  in  Christ. 
The  Jews  now  often  had  recourse  to  the  evasive  answer  that 
this  text  was  not  trustworthy,  and  only  the  original  ought  to 
be  relied  upon.  They  maintained  that  the  LXX  writers  had 
not  been  sufficiently  faithful  in  their  translation,  and  for  this 
reason  new  translations  seemed  to  be  required,  although  there 
was  plainly  no  ground  for  the  Jews'  complaints,  as  the  LXX 
version  is  only  too  literal. 

1.  It  was  probably  from  motives  of  hostility  to  Christians 
that  in  the  second  century  Aquilas  of  Sinope  in  Pontus,  a 
Jewish  proselyte,  made  a  translation  following  the  Hebrew  so 
slavishly  as  to  violate  all  the  rules  of  Greek  grammar.     For 
instance,  he  rendered  Genesis  i.  1 :  'Ei>  /cefaXatq*  eKrurev  o  0eo? 
crvv  TOV  ovpavov  ical  crvv  rrjv  yfjv.     Several  passages  favorable 
to   Christianity  he  translated   differently  from  the   LXX,   al- 
though their  version  was  correct.     For  instance,  in  Isaias  vii. 
14,  he  rendered  alma  not  by  Trapdtvos ,  as  the  LXX  did,  but  by 
veavis.     His  work  was  warmly  welcomed  by  the  Jews,  and  the 
Talmud  praises  it  and  calls  it  the  Targum  Agilas. 

2.  Theodoiion,  an  Ebionite  from  Ephesus,  was  the  next  to 


THE   BIBLE   AS   A   WHOLE  239 

translate  the  Old  Testament  into  Greek.  His  work  resembles 
the  LXX,  and  he  retained  that  text  whenever,  in  his  opinion, 
it  gave  a  correct  rendering  of  the  Hebrew,  and  he  translated 
only  when  the  LXX  appeared  altogether  misleading,  as,  e.  g.,  in 
Daniel.  His  intention  was  therefore  to  revise  the  LXX.  His 
translation  was  held  in  more  esteem  by  the  Christians  than 
that  of  Aquilas,  and  his  version  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  was 
admitted  to  the  Canon  of  Holy  Scripture.  Theodotion  lived 
in  the  second  century,  and  Irenseus,  writing  in  176,  knew  his 
work  (Adv.  hcereses,  III,  24). 

3.  Symmachus,  another  Ebionite,  made  a  translation  some- 
what later.  Regarding  his  date  we  know  with  certainty  that 
he  wrote  after  Irenaeus  and  before  Origen,  as  the  latter  knew 
his  work,  but  the  former  did  not.  He  seems  to  have  written 
before  200  A.  D.,  perhaps  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  the 
Philosopher  ( 161-180). x  The  old  writers  who  mention  his 
translations,  say  at  the  same  time  that  they  are  freer  than  those 
of  his  predecessors;  he  tried  to  write  good  Greek,  to  remove 
whatever  there  was  in  earlier  translations  offensive  to  Western 
ears,  and  to  avoid  what  seemed  foreign.  He  cared  more  for  the 
thoughts  than  the  words.  Saint  Jerome  praises  his  version  and 
undoubtedly  often  took  Symmachus  as  his  model  for  his  own 
works,  for  it  is  impossible  not  to  perceive  a  similarity  between 
their  versions.  When  Origen  was  working  at  the  Bible,  he 
found  three  other  translations  besides  the  four  already  men- 
tioned, and  numbered  them  5,  6  and  7.  Consequently  they 
are  known  as  quinta,  sexta,  septima.  None  of  them  seems  to 
have  contained  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Only  fragments  of  all  the  translations  other  than  the  LXX  have  come 
down  to  us.  They  were  collected  by  Montfaucon,  a  Maurist,  Origenis 
Hexaplorum  qua  supersunt,  Paris,  1713,  2  vols.,  fol.  This  work  has 
been  superseded  by  Field's  Origenis  Hexaplorum  qucB  supersunt,  Oxonii, 
1871-75,  2  vols.,  4to. 


1  Mercati,  L'etfet  di  Simmaco,  Freibg.,  1893.  The  only  authority  is 
Epiphanius  (De  Ponderibus  et  Mensuris,  c.  16,  17),  who  assigns  him  to 
this  period,  but  he  is  not  trustworthy. 


240    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

33.   LATER  HISTORY  OF  THE  SEPTUAGINT.   ORIGEN" 

The  more  the  Septuagint  was  used  by  Christians,  the  more 
did  its  reputation  among  the  Jews  diminish,  until  at  last  their 
dislike  amounted  to  hatred  and  horror.1  Christians,  however, 
read  this  text,  handed  down  to  them  by  the  Apostles  and  the 
first  preachers  of  the  faith,  in  their  meetings  for  public  wor- 
ship, just  as  they  read  the  writings  of  the  Apostles.  As  the 
Christian  communities  became  more  numerous,  copies  of  this 
book  had  to  be  multplied,  and  no  ancient  work  was  so  fre- 
quently copied.  The  very  fact  of  its  wide  diffusion  was  harmful 
to  the  text;  many  various  readings  crept  in  as  a  result  of  its 
being  so  often  copied,  and  many  persons  who  possessed  Bibles, 
especially  if  they  understood  Hebrew,  ventured  to  make  a 
slight  alteration  here  and  there,  which  was  perpetuated  when 
the  manuscript  was  copied.  The  condition  of  the  copies  of  the 
Bible  caused  anxiety  and  sorrow  to  many  Christians,  particu- 
larly to  scholars,  as  they  had  to  hear  the  Jews  assert,  in  argu- 
ments respecting  the  faith,  that  the  very  book  from  which 
Christian  doctrines  should  be  proved  and  Jewish  errors  refuted 
was  devoid  of  all  authority,  as  it  often  differed  from  the  Hebrew 
text,  and  the  various  Greek  versions  of  it  did  not  agree  with 
one  another.  (The  mistake  was  made  of  setting  too  high  a 
value  on  the  Hebrew  text,  and  of  assuming  that  it  was  quite 
free  from  errors.) 

In  order  to  put  an  end  to  these  reproaches,  Origen,  a  learned 
Alexandrian,  undertook  a  very  comprehensive  work  on  the  Bible, 
and  collated  the  various  texts.  This  work,  known  as  the 
Hexapla,  was  completed  in  231.  Origen's  system  of  arrange- 
ment was  the  following: 

He  divided  the  rolls  of  manuscript  into  six  columns,  or,  in 
dealing  with  some  books  of  the  Bible,  into  seven,  eight  or 
even  nine.  In  the  first  he  wrote  the  Hebrew  text  in  Hebrew 
letters;  in  the  second  the  same  text  in  Greek  characters;  in 
the  third  the  literal  translation,  viz.,  that  of  Aquilas;  in  the 

1  Later  Jews  mourned  over  the  existence  of  the  LXX  as  over  the  wor- 
ship of  the  golden  calf,  and  said  that  darkness  had  enveloped  the  earth 
for  three  days,  when  this  work  was  completed. 


THE    BIBLE    AS    A   WHOLE  241 

fourth  that  of  Symmachus ;  in  the  fifth  the  Septuagint  version, 
and  in  the  sixth  that  of  Theodotion.  In  the  case  of  some 
books  other  columns  were  added,  containing  the  quinta,  sexto, 
and  septima,  so  that  these  parts  of  the  whole  may  be  called 
heptapla,  octapla  and  enneapla  respectively.  In  the  fifth  column, 
containing  the  Septuagint,  Origen  inserted  definite  marks,  in- 
tended to  show  exactly  the  relation  between  that  version  and 
the  original.  If  he  found  something  added  in  the  LXX  that 

was  absent  in  the  Hebrew  text,  he  marked  it  with  an  obelus °—9 

signifying  that  it  ought  to  be  omitted;  if  he  detected  some- 
thing left  out,  he  supplied  it,  generally  from  Theodotion,  mark- 
ing it  with  an  asterisk  *  and  naming  the  source  whence  he  had 
taken  what  was  missing.  A  metobelus  (*-*)  marked  the  end  of 
the  passage  to  which  the  other  marks  applied. 

This  great  work  being  of  the  highest  value  was  received  with 
approval  and  diligently  used.  On  account  of  its  bulkiness  it 
could  not  be  reproduced,  and  had  to  be  studied  and  consulted 
at  Csesarea  in  Palestine,  where  it  was  kept.  Extracts  from  it 
were,  however,  made:  (1)  Origen  himself  prepared  the  so-called 
Tetrapla;  i.  e.  an  arrangement  of  the  four  best  known  transla- 
tions (LXX,  Aquilas,  Theodotion  and  Symmachus)  in  four 
parallel  columns.  This  enabled  the  Christians  to  see  where 
they  could  safely  rely  upon  the  LXX  without  fear  of  contra- 
diction, as  the  other  translations  gave  them  valuable  indications, 
and  Aquilas  was  almost  a  substitute  for  the  original  text.  (2) 
At  a  later  date  Eusebius,  Bishop  of  CaBsarea,  the  well-known 
writer  on  "  Church  History,"  and  his  friend,  Pamphilus,  had  the 
Septuagint  text,  with  all  Origen's  marks  and  emendations,  copied 
from  the  fifth  column  of  the  Hexapla,  and  these  copies  were 
approved  by  the  Church  in  Palestine.  Thus  the  Hexapla  and 
Tetrapla  fell  out  of  use,  and  only  fragments  of  them  are 
extant  (see  p.  239). 

Additional  Notes.  1.  Origen  was  not  the  only  scholar  of  antiquity 
who  undertook  to  revise  the  Alexandrian  text.  The  same  was  done  by 
Lucian,  a  priest  and  afterwards  a  martyr  (312  A.  D.  )  in  Antioch,  and  by 
the  Egyptian  Hesychius,  who  also  suffered  martyrdom  in  311.  They 
studied  the  Hebrew  text,  but  referred  also  to  early  manuscripts  of  the 
LXX.  Lucian's  revision  was  used  in  many  congregations  in  Asia  (not 
in  Palestine)  and  in  Eastern  Europe;  Hesychius',  in  Egypt. 


242    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

2.  The  Alexandrian  translation  has  been  preserved  in   several  old 
manuscripts.     The  codices  B,    N   and  A    (cf.  Cornill,  302),  which  have 
been  already  mentioned,  contain  probably  the  purest  text.     The  small 
editions  brought  out  by  Loch    (2d  ed.,   Ratisbon,    1886)    and  Tischen- 
dorf    (7th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1887)    are  based  upon  printed  editions  of  these 
three  codices.     L.  van  Ess,  Vetus  Test.  gr.  juxta  70  interpreter,  Leipz., 
1824,  1855,  1887,  is  printed  from  the  Roman  edition  of  Codex  B,  1587  (see 
above,  p.  229 ) . 

In  1883  P.  v.  Lagarde  published  in  Gottingen  the  first  volume  of  an 
editions  already  mentioned,  contain  probably  the  purest  text.  The  small 
inclusive,  but  unhappily  no  other  volume  appeared.  The  text  is  that  of 
Lucian,  which  is  given  also  in  the  Complutensian  Polyglot.  Between 
1887  and  1895  a  very  carefully  prepared  edition  of  the  Septuagint  in 
three  volumes  was  published  in  Cambridge,  and  a  second  revised  edition 
was  printed,  1895-1899,  under  the  title  "  The  Old  Testament  in  Greek," 
by  H.  Barclay  Swete.  Also  by  Swete  is  an  excellent  "Introduction 
to  the  Old  Testament  in  Greek,"  with  an  appendix  containing  the  letter 
of  Aristeas  (Cambridge,  1900). 

3.  Origen's  autograph  still  existed  at  Cseaarea  until  after  600  A.  D., 
but  it  disappeared  when  the  Arabs  conquered  Palestine.     Not  long  be- 
fore its  disappearance  the  Monophysite  Bishop  Paul  of  Telia  translated 
at  Alexandria   (617)   the  fifth  column  of  the  LXX  quite  literally  into 
Syriac,  inserting  all  the  critical  marks    (see  p.  246).     By  aid  of  this 
translation  it  is  not  difficult  to  restore  the  Greek  text.     This  Syriac 
version  has  been  preserved  in  a  manuscript  of  the  eighth  century  now 
in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan.     A  photolithographic  reproduction 
of  it  was  published  by  Ceriani  in  1874.1 


34.   CHALDEE  TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 
(TARGUMIM)  2 

When  Hebrew  ceased  to  be  a  living  language,  it  was  found 
necessary  to  translate  the  Bible  into  Chaldee.     As  early  as  the 

1  A  small  portion  of  the  Hexapla,  not  including  the  first  column  for 
Hebrew  in  Hebrew  characters,  has  been  found  in  a  palimpsest  in  the 
Ambrosiana  at  Milan.     The  discoverer  was  Dr.  Mercati,  mentioned  on 
p.  239.    The  manuscript  dates  from  the  tenth  century,  and  contains  the 
Hexapla  of  eleven  Psalms.     It  is  written  in  minuscules.     The  discovery 
is  important  for  several  reasons;  e.g.  for  the  reading  of  the  Hebrew  in 
the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  i.  e.  in  the  time  before  the 
Masora  was  written,  and  also  for  the  criticisms  on  the  text  of  those  par- 
ticular Psalms.     An  account  of  it  was  given  by  Ceriani  in  the  Rendi- 
conti  of  the  Lombard  Literary  Institute,  Ser.  II,  vol.  29.    The  collections 
made  by  Montfaucon  and  Field  ( see  p.  239 )  do  not  of  course  contain  this 
portion  of  the  Hexapla. 

2  Targum,  pi.  Targumim,  means  simply  "translation,"  "interpreta- 
tion," from  tagam    ( =  ta'am ) ,  to  be  double,   targem    ( =  taggem ) ,  to 
double,  used  especially  of  something  written  —  hence  to  interpret,  eluci- 


THE    BIBLE   AS    A   WHOLE  243 

time  of  Esdras  and  Nehemias,  the  people  no  longer  understood 
the  ancient  Hebrew  (Neh.  viii.  8),  and  so  it  was  not  enough 
to  read  the  Sacred  Books  in  the  synagogues  of  Palestine  in 
the  original,  but  what  was  read  had  to  be  translated  into  the 
vulgar  tongue,  viz.  into  Chaldee.  For  a  long  time  this  was 
done  orally,  but  gradually  the  translations  were  written  down. 
They  must  all  belong  to  a  very  early  period,  as  nowhere  can 
any  hostility  to  Christianity  be  traced  in  them.  They  origi- 
nated partly  in  Palestine,  partly  in  Babylon,  in  the  rabbinical 
schools  of  these  districts.  We  possess  Targumim  of  all  the 
books  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  except  Esdras,  Nehemias  and  Daniel. 
The  most  important  Targum  is  that  of  Onkelos,1  and  dates 
from  the  time  of  the  Apostles.  It  is  limited  to  the  Pentateuch, 
and  is  very  faithful  and  free  from  mistakes.  A  second  Targum, 
that  of  the  Prophets,2  is  ascribed  to  Jonathan,  a  disciple  of 
Hillel,  who  was  a  teacher  of  the  law.  Apparently  this  was 
written  during  our  Lord's  life.  It  is  not  so  accurate  as  the 
work  of  Onkelos,  contains  many  explanatory  additions,  and 
might  almost  be  called  a  paraphrase  explaining  the  text.  The 
pseudo-Jonathan's  Targum  of  the  Pentateuch  and  others  of 
various  books  of  the  Bible  3  were  the  work  of  unknown  authors 
of  later  date,  and  are  regarded  as  less  valuable.  Nevertheless, 
as  they,  too,  date  from  very  early  in  the  Christian  era,  they  are 
useful  aids  in  studing  the  Hebrew  text.  It  is  generally  acknowl- 
edged that  the  text  used  by  these  later  translators  differed  very 
little  from  the  Masoretic. 

date.  Oral  elucidation  seems  to  have  given  rise  to  the  sermon,  the  edi- 
fying explanation  of  what  is  written,  which  is  still  called  Turgam  by- 
Syrian  Christians. 

1  According  to  the  Talmud,  Onkelos  was  a  proselyte ;    he  showed  great 
honor  to  the  famous  Gamaliel  at  his  death   (52  A.  D.)>  so  he  must  have 
lived  in  the  first  century   (see  Kaulen,  I,  115).    His  Targum  is  printed 
in  the  great  polyglot  editions,  and  a  new  reprint  of  it  was  published  by 
A.  Berliner  in  Berlin,  1884. 

2  It  contains  Josue,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings,  Isaias,  Jeremias,  Ezechiel 
and  the  twelve  minor  prophets. 

3  Namely  an  anonymous  Targum  of  the  Psalms,  Proverbs  and  Job; 
another  of  the  five  "Rolls"   (Megilloth,  i.e.  Canticles,  Ruth,  Lamenta- 
tions, Ecclesiasticus  and  Esther)  ;    another  of  Esther  and  one  of  Chroni- 
cles.    For  printed  editions  of  the  Targums  see  Kaulen,  Einl.,  I,  114; 
Petermann,  Linguw  chald.  grammatica,  pp.  83-88. 


244    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


35.   SAMARITAN  TRANSLATION  OP  THE  PENTATEUCH 

The  Samaritans  were  a  mixed  race,  speaking  a  Semitic  dialect 
of  their  own,  and  using  the  old  Semitic  or  Phoenician  writing. 
They  were  accustomed  to  read  the  Mosaic  law  (written  in 
Phoenician  characters),  when  they  assembled  for  the  worship 
of  God.1  Just  as  a  translation  became  necessary  for  use  in  the 
Jewish  sjTiagogues,  so  did  the  Samaritans  too  require  a  trans- 
lation, for  they  ceased  to  understand  Hebrew.  According  to 
the  statements  made  by  the  few  remaining  people  of  this 
nation,  one  was  made  by  a  priest  named  Nathanael,  about  the 
year  20  B.  c.  The  ancients  were  familiar  with  this  work,  and 
Origen  often  quotes  it  in  his  Hexapla,  and  calls  it  TO  ^apapei- 
TLKOV.  It  became  known  in  the  West  through  Delia  Valle, 
a  scholar  who  in  1616  acquired  a  manuscript  of  it  at  Damascus, 
as  well  as  one  of  the  original.  Both  dated  from  the  year  1514, 
and  are  now  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome.  Another  manuscript,  also 
from  Damascus,  is  in  the  library  of  the  Barberini  family  in 
Rome,  and  still  older  manuscripts,  which  are,  however,  frag- 
mentary, are  at  Oxford,  Cambridge  and  St.  Petersburg. 

The  Samaritan  translation  is  contained  in  the  polyglot  editions 
printed  in  Paris  and  London,  and  it  has  been  reprinted  from  them  by 
Briill,  Frankfurt,  1873.  This  text  is  based  upon  one  single  manuscript  of 
the  year  514,  which  is  both  recent  and  defective.  Petermann's  edition, 
completed  by  Vollers  (Berlin,  1891),  is  based  on  several  manuscripts  and 
is  therefore  very  valuable.  According  to  a  critique  by  Samuel  Kohn,  the 
Samaritan  translation  is  very  literal,  reproducing  the  text  of  the  Samari- 
tan-Hebrew Bible  almost  letter  for  letter,  with  servile  fidelity,  and  be- 
traying a  want  of  knowledge  of  Hebrew.  The  original  composition  prob- 
ably passed  through  many  hands  and  underwent  many  alterations. 

36.   SYRIAC  TRANSLATIONS 

The  Syrian  Church,  the  first  community  of  Gentile  Chris- 
tians, possessed  various  translations  of  the  Bible,  of  which  the 
most  important  is  that  known  as  the  Peshitto  version.  It 
is  certainly  not  the  work  of  one  man.  The  New  Testament 
alone  may  have  been  done  by  one  writer,  at  least  as  far  as  the 

1  With  regard  to  the  time  when  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Book  of  Josue 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Samaritans,  see  above,  p.  52.  .  • 


THE   BIBLE    AS    A   WHOLE  245 

6/jLo\ojovfJieva  are  concerned.  The  writings  of  the  Apostles 
were  read  in  every  church  at  assemblies  for  worship,  and  as 
the  Syrian  Church  is  one  of  the  oldest,  the  Syriac  version  of  the 
New  Testament  must  belong  to  quite  the  early  part  of  the  second 
century,  and  the  uniformity  of  the  language  points  to  its  being 
the  work  of  one  translator.  The  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
at  least  the  protocanonical,  had  existed  in  Syriac  before  this 
time,  for  in  the  New  Testament  Peshitto  quotations  are  made 
from  the  Old  Testament  Peshitto,  hence  the  latter  must  have 
been  written  in  the  first  century  of  our  era;  it  was  translated 
from  the  Hebrew  text,  and  is  probably  the  work  of  several 
persons,  as  its  language  has  not  the  same  uniformity  and  even- 
ness as  that  of  the  New  Testament  Peshitto. 


The  name  Knt3'tf3,  Peshittho  or  PesMttha,  is  explained  in  various 
ways.  It  seems  to  be  connected  with  BBfe)  (Chald.  and  Syr.  peshat), 
i.  e.  to  spread  out,  expound,  so  that  the  meaning  would  be  the  expounded, 
i.  e.  translated  (  Scripture  )  . 

The  deuterocanonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  avri\€'y6(jiei>a 
of  the  New  were  added  to  the  Peshitto  before  the  fourth  century,  as 
Saint  Ephrem  the  Syrian  (300-380),  who  did  not  understand  Greek, 
often  quotes  from  them.  That  they  originally  were  not  included  seems 
probable  from  notes  in  some  manuscripts  of  the  Peshitto  (  cf.  p.  205  )  . 

In  1858  Cureton,  an  Englishman,  published  some  fragments  of  a 
Syriac  text  of  the  Gospels  that  is  older  than  the  Peshitto  in  its  present 
form.  Bathgen  used  his  work  (1885)  in  an  attempt  to  restore  the  Greek 
text  from  which  the  Syriac  translation  had  been  made.  In  1892,  in  the 
monastery  on  Sinai,  a  palimpsest  manuscript  of  the  gospels  in  Syriac 
was  discovered  that  appears  to  be  still  older  than  Cureton's  text.  This 
Codex  Sinaiticus  Syrus  is  called  Lewis  Codex  after  the  lady  who  dis- 
covered it,  Mrs.  Smith-Lewis,  an  English  widow.  It  was  photographed 
in  situ,  and  published  at  Cambridge  in  1894,  under  the  title  "  The  Four 
Gospels  in  Syriac,  transcribed  from  the  Sinaitic  Palimpsest,"  4to.  It  was 
followed  by  "  A  Translation  of  the  Four  Gospels,"  by  Smith-Lewis,  Lon- 
don, 1894,  Svo.1 


1  See  K.  Holzhey,  Der  neuentdeckte  Codex  Syrus  Sinaiticus,  Munich, 
1896.  This  work  contains  a  thorough  examination  of  the  codex,  as  well 
as  a  comparison  of  it  with  Cureton's  text.  Both  texts  appear,  according 
to  Holzhey,  to  have  been  translated  from  the  same  Greek  original;  they 
are  not  independent  translations,  but  are  revised  versions  of  one  and  the 
same  text,  and  are  older  than  the  Peshitto.  Tatian's  Diatessaron  is 
based  upon  the  Lewis  Codex,  and  is  possibly  later  than  the  Cureton 
Codex.  Both  manuscripts  are  orthodox;  only  the  genealogy  in  Saint 
Matthew  in  the  new  Sinai  palimpsest  seems  to  have  been  taken  from  an 


246    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

The  discoverer  made  a  second  journey  to  Sinai  in  the  spring  of  1895, 
in  order,  if  possible,  to  fill  up  the  voids  in  the  first  edition  and  to  verify 
some  doubtful  readings.  She  published  the  results  of  this  re-examina- 
tion of  the  codex  in  her  work,  "  Some  Pages  of  the  Four  Gospels  re- 
transcribed  from  the  Sinaitic  Palimpsest  with  a  Translation  of  the 
Whole  Text,"  Cambridge,  1896.  This  book  contains  many  additions  to 
the  text  as  first  published.  The  discovery  is  of  great  importance  in  Bible 
criticism,  for  this  is  the  oldest  Syriac  text  known  hitherto.  Unhappily 
it  is  very  incomplete.1 

Besides  the  Peshitto,  there  are  two  other  Syriac  translations, 
viz.:  (a)  In  the  seventh  century  (617)  Paul  of  Telia,  a  Mono- 
physite  bishop,  translated  the  Old  Testament  from  the  LXX. 
The  rendering  is  so  literal  as  to  be  very  useful  in  determining 
the  text  of  the  Septuagint  at  that  time  (see  p.  24:2).  (b)  At 
a  still  earlier  date,  about  500  A.  D.,  a  suffragan  bishop,  named 
Polycarp,  translated  part  of  the  Bible  into  Syriac  from  the 
Greek.  He  did  so  at  the  instigation  of  his  bishop,  Philoxenus 
of  Mabug  (=Hierapolis).  His  version  contained  at  least  the 
Psalms  and  the  New  Testament.  These  two  translations  were 
used  by  heretics  (Monophysites).2 

The  Bible  was  translated  into  Arabic  only  at  a  comparatively  late 
date,  and  then  not  all  at  once,  nor  by  one  man,  but  book  by  book,  by 
various  persons.  The  best  known  of  these  translators  is  Rabbi  Saadia 
Gaon  (died  942),  an  Egyptian.  He  translated  the  whole  of  the  Jewish 
canon  of  the  Old  Testament  directly  from  the  Hebrew.  Not  all  the  books, 
however,  in  his  translation  have  been  preserved,  and  some  still  extant 
have  not  yet  been  printed.  Cf.  Engelkemper,  De  Saadice  Gaonis  vita, 
Bibliorum  versione,  hermeneutica.  Monast.,  1897.  Much  older,  and  there- 
fore more  important,  are  the  Coptic  (Egyptian)  translations  made  from 


Ebionite  manuscript  of  the  Gospels,  as,  in  i.  16,  it  contains  the  words, 
"Joseph  begot  Jesus."  The  discoverer  of  the  codex,  however,  does  not 
agree  with  this  theory,  and  lays  stress  upon  the  argument  that  the  text 
cannot  be  tainted  with  heresy,  as  immediately  after  the  genealogy  fol- 
lows the  account  of  the  birth  of  Christ  from  the  Virgin  Mary  by  the 
Holy  Spirit.  She  maintains  that  the  word  "  begot "  has  throughout  the 
genealogy  the  purely  conventional  meaning  "  was  reckoned  legally  or 
socially  as  the  son."  It  has  this  meaning  in  verse  8,  where  Joram  is 
said  to  have  begotten  his  great-grandson  Ozias,  and  in  verse  12,  where  the 
childless  Jechonias  is  said  to  have  begotten  Salathiel.  Cf.  also  A.  Bonus, 
Collatio  Cod.  Lew.  c.  Cod.  Curet,  Oxford,  1896. 

1  It  is  supposed  that  the  manuscript  was  revised  about  400  A.  D.,  in 
accordance  with  a  Greek  text  belonging  to  the  second  century. 

2  Printed  editions:    Ceriani,   Translatio   syra   Vet.   Test.,   Mediolani, 
1876,  etc.;    Gutbir,  Nov.  Test.  Syr.,  Hamburg,  1664. 


THE    BIBLE    AS    A    WHOLE  247 

the  Greek  in  the  second  or,  at  latest,  in  the  third  century.  Of  almost 
equal  value  are  the  Ethiopian  (fourth  century)  and  the  Armenian  (not 
much  later)  versions,  both  based  on  Greek  originals.  Of  the  Gothic 
translation  by  Vulfilas  (died  381)  only  some  considerable  fragments  re- 
main. This  version,  too,  was  made  from  the  Greek. 


37.   LATIN  TRANSLATIONS 
The  Itala  and  the  Vulgate 

1.  In  the  Western  Church  from  very  early  times  of  Chris- 
tianity, the  Holy  Scriptures  have  been  read  in  a  Latin  version, 
known  as  the  Vulgata  (versio)  in  consequence  of  its  widespread 
use.    This  translation  is  taken  partly  from  an  older  version,  that 
was  made  soon  after  the  introduction  of  Christianity  to  the 
West,  and  partly  is  the  work  of  Saint  Jerome. 

2.  As  soon  as  Christianity  was  adopted,  it  was  necessary  to 
read  the  sacred  books  during  divine  worship  in  the  vernacular, 
and  this  gave  rise  to  the  Latin  translation.     Scarcely  any  one 
in  the  West   (except  the  Jews)   understood  Hebrew,  and  only 
the  educated  classes  knew  Greek.    Most  of  the  early  Christians 
belonged  to  the  lower  classes  (I  Cor.  i.  26)  and  consequently  a 
Latin  version  was  needed. 

Whether  divine  worship  in  Rome  was  originally  performed  in  Latin 
or  in  Greek  is  still  an  open  question.  Ferd.  Probst  agrees  with  De 
Rossi  in  believing  the  Greek  language  to  have  been  in  use  until  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century,  but  Kaulen  thinks  Mass  was  said  in  Latin.  Even 
if  Greek  was  the  usual  language  for  the  sacrificial  rite,  the  Bible  would 
have  had  to  be  read  to  the  people  in  the  vernacular. 

3.  It  is  tolerably  certain  that  not  only  one  but  several  Latin 
translations  existed  long  before  Saint  Jerome.1     The  first  his- 
torical mention  of  the  existence  of  the  Bible  in  Latin  comes 
from  Africa,  where  Tertullian   (160-240),  writing  about  the 
end  of  the  second  century,  speaks  of  such  a  version  as  in  use 
among  the  Christians.2     Saint  Augustine,  who  wrote  later,  says 
that  there  were  many  Latin  versions,  but  he  preferred  the  Itala 

1  Wiseman  and  others  have  supposed  that  all  the  Latin  texts  of  the 
Bible,  before  the  time  of  Saint  Jerome,  were  only  different  versions  of 
one  original  translation  made  probably  in  Africa.     Comely  shares  this 
opinion,  but  Kaulen  thinks  that  the  translation  was  made  in  Rome. 

2  In  usum  exiit  nostrorum. 


248    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

(sc.  interpretatio)  to  all  the  rest,  as  it  was  accurate  and  yet 
intelligible.  Probably  he  had  brought  it  with  him  from  Italy, 
and  therefore  gave  it  this  name.1  The  text  used  by  Saint 
Augustine  was  certainly  not  the  same  as  Tertullian's,  as  may 
be  seen  by  comparing  their  quotations.  There  were  therefore 
at  least  two  Latin  versions  known  in  Africa.2  In  Europe  also 
there  were  probably  several  Latin  texts  in  existence,  as  the 
patristic  quotations  do  not  always  agree,  and  Saint  Jerome  com- 
plains of  there  being  many  Latin  texts  containing  great  dis- 
crepancies.3 

4.  Still  there  must  have  been  one  translation  regarded  in 
Italy   as  better  than  the  rest,   as   also   in   Saint   Augustine's 
opinion;    for  Saint  Jerome  often  mentions  a  communis  editio 
or  antiqua  translatio.     Moreover,  the  quotations  made  by  the 
Italian  Fathers  often  agree  exactly  and  point  to  their  having 
used  one  and  the  same  text;   and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  as  com- 
parison shows,  this  text  must  have  been  the  one  used  by  Saint 
Augustine,  viz.  that  of  the  Itala.     Saint  Augustine's  preference 
must  have  made  itself  felt  in  Italy  (ceteris  prccferatur) ,  and  so 
there  was  what  may  be  called  an  official  text. 

5.  It  is  true  that  to  a  great  extent  this  translation  is  lost 
for  us,  as  in  most  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  it  has  been 
replaced  by  Saint  Jerome's  translation,  that  will  be  discussed 
later.     A  good  deal,  however,  of  the  lost  translation  can  be 
recovered  from  quotations  made  by  the  Fathers  who  lived  before 
Saint  Jerome,  and  especially  by  Saint  Augustine.     Moreover, 
many  remains  of  older  Latin  manuscripts  have  been  found. 

1  De  doctrina  Christ.,  II,  15:    In  ipsis  interpretationibus  Itala  ceteris 
prceferatur,  nam  est  verborum  tenacior  [sc.  than  others]  cum  perspicui- 
tate  sent  entice.     Burkitt,   an   English   scholar,  has  tried  to  show  that 
this  Itala  was  not  an  earlier  Latin  text,  but  the  work  of  Saint  Jerome 
in  383  in  Rome.     Saint  Augustine  wrote  the  above  words  in  397.     But 
if  this  were  the  case,  Saint  Augustine's  Itala  would  have  contained  only 
the  Psalms  and  the  New  Testament,  whereas  he  is  speaking  of  the  whole 
Bible. 

2  Cf.  also  Wunderer,  BruchstiicJce  einer  Afrik.  Bibeliibersetzung  in  der 
pseudocyprianischen  Schrift  exhortatio   de  pwnitentia,  Erlangen,   1889. 
This    translation    agrees    fairly    with    Tertullian,    but    not    with    Saint 
Augustine. 

8  Prccf.  in  1.  Josue:  apud  Latinos  tot  [sunt~\  exemplaria  quot  codices. 


THE   BIBLE   AS   A   WHOLE  249 

As  early  as  the  eighteenth  century  Sabatier  of  the  Congregation  of 
Saint  Maur  attempted  to  restore  the  Itala  completely  from  the  scattered 
fragments  that  remain  of  it  ( Paris,  1743 ) .  Since  his  time  many  discov- 
eries have  been  made.  In  Munich  part  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  ac- 
cording to  the  Itala,  was  found  on  parchment  that  had  once  been  used 
to  bind  books  belonging  to  the  monastic  library  at  Freising.  This  was 
published  by  L.  Ziegler  (Italafragmente,  Marburg,  1875).  That  these 
fragments  really  formed  part  of  the  Itala  is  clearly  seen,  if  they  are 
compared  with  Saint  Augustine.  The  same  may  be  said  of  an  edition  of 
the  Gospels  by  H.  J.  White,  "The  Four  Gospels"  ("Old  Latin  Biblical 
Texts,"  iii.  1888).  This  is  based  upon  a  sixth-century  manuscript  belong- 
ing to  a  priest  named  Valerian;  it  was  found  at  Freising,  and  is  now  in 
Munich.  Tischendorf  refers  to  this  manuscript  as  q. 

Other  parts  of  the  Itala  from  Freising  were  published  by  Belsheim 
and  Wolmin.  According  to  Wolmin  the  Freising  manuscript  belongs  to 
the  sixth  century.  He  praises  the  translation  of  the  Itala}  and,  like 
Saint  Augustine,  admires  its  exact  correspondence  with  the  Greek  origi- 
nal and  the  lucidity  of  its  expressions.  It  aims  not  so  much  at  correct 
Latinity,  but  at  preventing  "  any  particle  of  God's  word  from  being  lost." 
Wolmin  thinks  that  the  oldest  Latin  translation  was  made  in  Africa, 
because  Greek  was  not  understood  there,  whereas  in  Rome  and  Southern 
Italy  Greek  was  spoken  as  well  as  Latin.  "  When  and  where  it  was 
written  will  only  be  stated  with  certainty  after  we  have  acquired  a 
better  knowledge  of  African  Latin."  Other  editions  of  texts  belonging  to 
a  period  before  Saint  Jerome,  and  now  generally  called  collectively 
Itala,  are  mentioned  by  Kaulen. 

6.  The  existing  remains  of  the  old  Latin  version  enable  us 
to  see  (1)  that  it  was  translated  from  a  Greek  text,  and,  in 
the  case  of  the  Old  Testament,  from  the  text  of  the  Septuagint 
that  existed  before  the  Hexapla;   (2)   that  it  reproduced  this 
text  with  great  accuracy,  and  might  justly  be  called  the  Septua- 
ginta  in  Latino;  (3)  that  it  was  in  vulgar  Latin,  and  (4)  that 
it  was  the  work  of  an  Oriental.     We  may  assume  that  the 
translator  (or  translators)  belonged  to  the  number  of  those  who 
preached  the  faith  in  the  earliest  age  of  Christianity.     Eufinus 
the   Presbyter,   the   friend   and   afterwards   the   antagonist   of 
Saint  Jerome,  intimates  that  the  translation,  or  at  least  the 
beginning  of  it,  must  be  traced  back  to  Saint  Peter.     In  fact, 
if  the   founder   of  the   Eoman    Church   established   the   order 
of  worship,  it  seems  that  he  must  have  taken  care  to  have  a 
generally  intelligible  text  of  the  sacred  books,  which  were  read 
at  the  assemblies. 

7.  The  widespread  use  of  the  Latin  text  gave  rise  to  many 
variant  readings  in  the  copies  of  the  Bible,  as  it  did  in  the 


250    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

case  of  the  Septuagint.  Complaints  gradually  arose,  and  in- 
creased as  time  went  on,  and  they  caused  the  energetic  Pope 
Damasus  to  commission  the  learned  Saint  Jerome,  who  was 
then  living  in  Rome,  to  revise  and  amend  the  Latin  text  that 
was  in  general  use  in  that  city.  He  set  to  work  at  once,  and 
in  the  same  year  produced  a  revised  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  Psalms.  This  version  of  the  New  Testament  has 
ever  since  been  used  in  the  liturgy.  The  Psalms,  too,  were 
at  once  introduced  into  it,  and  this  text  is  still  found  where 
passages  from  the  Psalms  occur  in  the  Missale  Romanum,  as 
well  as  in  the  Invitatoria  and  Responsoria  of  the  Breviary.  To 
distinguish  Saint  Jerome's  text  from  the  unrevised  version,  the 
former  was  called  the  Psalterium  Romanum.  Later  on,  in  392, 
Saint  Jerome,  being  then  in  Palestine,  revised  the  text  of  the 
Psalms  again  with  more  accuracy,  comparing  it  with  the 
Hexapla  version  of  the  Septuagint,  for  he  had  discovered 
Origen's  great  work  in  the  library  of  the  church  at  Csesarea. 
This  new  revision  was  adopted  first  in  Gaul,  and  hence  it  is 
called  the  Psalterium  Gallicanum;  it  is  the  version  given  in 
the  Vulgate  and  in  the  Breviary  (with  the  above-mentioned 
exceptions).  While  he  was  in  Palestine,  Saint  Jerome  revised 
most  of  the  other  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  collating  them 
with  the  Hexapla,  but  of  this  revision  nothing  has  been  pre- 
served except  the  Book  of  Job  (published  by  Lagarde,  MitteiL, 
II,  189-237),  as  a  still  better  Latin  text  was  soon  afterwards 
produced. 

8.  While  engaged  in  the  work  just  described,  Saint  Jerome 
conceived  an  entirely  new  plan.  As  during  his  sojourn  in 
Palestine  he  had  learnt  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  very  thoroughly, 
and  as  he  was  convinced  that  the  original  text  was  far  superior 
to  the  Septuagint  translation,  and  in  order  also  to  prevent  the 
Jews  from  being  able  to  argue  that  the  text  used  by  the  Church 
was  inaccurate,  he  determined  to  translate  into  Latin,  from  the 
Hebrew  and  Chaldee,  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  far  as 
it  existed  in  the  original.  In  spite  of  some  interruptions,  he 
completed  this  work  in  fifteen  years  (390-405).  Unhappily,  he 
had  too  high  an  opinion  of  his  Hebrew  original,  which  he  often 
calls  hebraica  veritas,  although  it  was  very  like  the  present 


THE   BIBLE   AS   A   WHOLE  251 

Masoretic  text,  contained  many  defects,  and  was  in  many  re- 
spects inferior  to  the  Septuagint.  However,  his  reverence  for 
tradition,  and  also  his  knowledge  that  most  Catholics  were 
averse  to  any  alteration  of  the  sacred  text,  kept  him  from 
giving  free  rein  to  his  preference  for  the  Hebrew,  and  in  his 
translation  we  find  many  passages  at  variance  with  the  Hebrew 
text.  Eegarded  as  a  whole,  Saint  Jerome's  work  is  the  best 
of  all  the  old  translations,  since  it  exactly  reproduces  the  mean- 
ing of  the  original,  and  does  so  in  very  perfect  language.1 

9.  It  did  not,  however,  find  ready  acceptance  everywhere  in 
the  Church,  as  the  prefaces  to  the  sacred  books  reveal.  Many 
objected  to  the  new  expressions,  and  disapproved  of  the  apparent 
neglect  of  the  Septuagint,  which  had  been  used  by  the  Apostles. 
Saint  Jerome  had  to  encounter  bitter  antagonism  in  conse- 
quence, and  a  long  time  elapsed  before  the  new  text  won  favor, 
as  the  Church  gave  no  special  orders  enforcing  its  use.  During 
the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  both  translations  were  in  use; 
some  persons  preferred  the  Itala,  others  Saint  Jerome's  text, 
and  it  was  only  after  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great  that  the 
latter  decidedly  prevailed,  for,  although  the  Pope  said  in  his 
explanation  of  the  Book  of  Job  that  either  text  might  be  used, 
he  showed  plainly  in  the  course  of  his  commentary  that  lie 
preferred  Saint  Jerome's.  When  the  Venerable  Bede  lived,  the 
Itala  had  already  fallen  out  of  use  in  the  churches,  and  was 
described  as  prisca,  vetusta,  antiqua,  while  Saint  Jerome's  text 
gradually  came  to  be  known  as  nostra  or  vulgata,  and  ever 
since,  up  to  the  present  time,  it  has  always  been  used  in  the 
Church. 


The  Codex  Fuldensis  of  the  New  Testament,  written  about  545,  is  be- 
lieved  to  be  the  oldest  manuscript  of  the  Latin  text  as  revised  by  Saint 
Jerome  (published  by  Ranke,  Marburg,  1868).  Of  not  much  later  date  is 
the  Codex  Amiatinus,  written  in  England,  690-716;  it  is  named  after 
the  Monastery  of  Amiata  near  Florence,  where  it  was  formerly  kept,  but 
now  it  is  in  Florence.  It  contains  the  whole  Bible  with  the  exception  of 
the  Book  of  Baruch.  The  New  Testament  of  this  Codex  was  edited  by 
Tischendorf  under  the  title  Codex  Amiatinus  N.  T.  interprete  Hieronymo, 
Leipz.,  1854. 

1  Concerning  the  method  of  this  translation  see  Hoberg,  De  s.  Hiero- 
nym.  ratione  interpretandi,  1886. 


252    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

10.  What  has  been  said  shows  that  the  Vulgate  consists  of 
the  following  parts:  (a)  the  protocanonical  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  (with  the  exception  of  the  Psalms)  according  to 
Saint  Jerome's  translation  from  the  Hebrew  or  Chaldee;  (&) 
the  deuterocanonical  books  of  Tobias  and  Judith,  also  translated 
by  him  directly  from  the  same  languages;  (c)  the  Psalms,  from 
the  Itala  but  revised  twice  by  Saint  Jerome  in  accordance  with 
the  Septuagint;  (d)  the  deuterocanonical  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  (with  the  exception  of  Tobias  and  Judith),  as  taken 
from  the  Itala,  and  not  revised  by  Saint  Jerome  (Baruch,  I 
and  II  Machabees,  Ecclesiasticus,  Wisdom) ;  Saint  Jerome 
translated  Esther  x.-xvi.  from  the  Septuagint,  and  Daniel  iii. 
24-90,  xiii.  and  xiv.  from  Theodotion;  (e)  the  whole  of  the 
New  Testament  is  taken  from  the  Itala,  but  modified  by  Saint 
Jerome's  revision  mentioned  above. 


38.    CONTINUATION.    THE  VULGATE   IN   THE   MIDDLE   AGES 

11.  In  course  of  time  frequent  copying,  and  the  many  cor- 
rections made  by  the  owners,  of  Bibles  led  to  great  diversity  in 
the  copies  of  the  Latin  Bibles.     Most  of  the  variant  readings 
are  due  to  familiarity  with  the  old  Itala,  and  the  Liturgy  espe- 
cially was  not  without  influence  upon  the  text.     Charlemagne 
employed  his  learned  chancellor  Alcuin  in  revising  the  text 
of  the  Vulgate,  probably  in  accordance  with  the  oldest  manu- 
scripts obtainable    (801).     In  the  eleventh  century  the  great 
scholar,  Lanfranc  (ob.  1089),  undertook  a  new  emendation,  and 
his  text  was  long  considered  as  the  standard  for  copyists. 

12.  From  the  twelfth  century  onwards   the  so-called  Cor- 
rectoria  came  into  use,  to  secure  as  far  as  possible  the  accuracy 
of  the  text.     They  originated  with   Stephen  Harding,  Abbot 
of  Citeaux  (ob.  1134).    He  corrected  a  manuscript  of  the  Bible 
in  accordance  with  a  very  old  Latin  copy,  using  at  the  same 
time  the  Hebrew  and  the  Greek  texts.    The  revised  version  thus 
produced   was   thenceforth   the   standard   text   for   the   whole 
Cistercian  Order.     Other  Orders  and  learned  bodies  followed 
Stephen  Harding,  and  every  community  desired  in  a  similar 
way  to  procure  for  itself  a  standard  copy  of  the  Bible.     The 


THE    BIBLE   AS    A   WHOLE  253 

standard  copy  of  the  Vulgate  used  by  the  University  of  Paris 
was  very  frequently  copied,  but  as  it  was  by  no  means  free  from 
mistakes,  theologians  from  the  thirteenth  century  onwards  col- 
lected various  readings,  adding  notes  to  say  which  had  the 
best  claim  to  preference.  These  various  readings  were  written 
on  the  broad  margins  of  the  Bible  texts,  and  a  text  containing 
them,  or  even  a  copy  of  the  apparatus  criticus  without  the  text, 
was  called  a  correctorium.  Many  such  correctoria  are  preserved 
in  various  libraries. 

13.  Towards  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  two  things  ex- 
erted great  influence  upon  the  Latin  text;    viz.,  the  study  of 
classical  literature  and  the  invention  of  printing. 

The  increase  of  classical  studies  had  the  result  that  in  many 
places  people  tried  to  "  improve  "  the  traditional  text  on  classical 
lines,  because  Saint  Jerome's  language  did  not  savor  of  Cicero. 
Moreover,  many  wished  to  make  the  Latin  text  conform  more 
closely  to  the  Greek  or  Hebrew.  Alterations  of  both  these  kinds 
could  be  made  only  at  the  cost  of  sacrificing  the  uniformity  and 
purity  of  the  text. 

The  introduction  of  the  art  of  printing  had  similar  effects. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  first  book  ever  printed  was  the  Latin 
Bible  (Mayence,  1450).  By  the  year  1500  over  one  hundred 
different  editions  of  the  Bible  had  been  printed  and  were  in 
circulation.  In  bringing  out  the  earliest  editions,  there  was 
no  thought  of  textual  criticism,  and  any  manuscript  that  came 
to  hand  was  printed.  As  competition  increased,  however,  the 
publishers  had  to  comply  with  the  taste  of  the  period  and  have 
recourse  to  Hebrew  and  Greek.  The  more  numerous  these  aids 
were,  and  the  more  various  their  sources,  the  greater  and  more 
striking  were  the  diversities  in  the  Latin  text,  so  much  so  that 
the  very  idea  of  a  Vulgate,  i.  e.  of  a  generally  recognized  and 
accepted  form  of  the  written  words  of  revelation,  was  almost 
lost. 

39.    CONTINUATION.   THE  COUNCIL  OF  TRENT 

14.  Meantime  the  Keformation  had  broken  out,  and  in  con- 
sequence of  it  the  Council  of  Trent  had  assembled.    On  account 
of  the  dogmatic  questions  which  it  had  to  consider,   it  was 


254    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

obliged  to  begin  by  determining  the  sources  of  the  Church's 
teaching.  These  were  declared  to  be  Scripture  and  tradition. 
As  from  the  earliest  times  in  all  ecclesiastical  business  the  Holy 
Scriptures  had  been  used  in  the  language  of  the  Eoman  metro- 
politan Church,  it  was  decided  not  to  depart  from  this  practice, 
but  it  was  obvious  that  the  Latin  Bibles  varied  greatly  one  from 
another.  It  was  therefore  necessary  to  point  out  one  book  in 
which  the  Holy  Scripture  might  be  found  accurately  and  truth- 
fully rendered,  and  such  the  Council  declared  to  be  "the  old 
Vulgate  edition,  which  has  stood  the  test  of  use  for  many  cen- 
turies in  the  Church/'  It  went  on  to  order  that  the  Vulgate 
should  be  regarded  as  authentic  and  be  taken  as  the  foundation 
not  only  at  all  proceedings  of  the  Council,  but  also  at  all  the 
official  transactions  of  the  Church,  at  sermons,  catechizing  and 
discussions  (Trid.,  Sess.  4).1 

15.  The  expression  "  authentic  "  (==  trustworthy,  demonstra- 
tive) implies  that  the  Vulgate  contains  the  right  text  of  Holy 
Scripture,  as  that  text  was  written  by  the  authors.  Therefore 
any  evidence  derived  from  it  on  matters  of  faith  or  morals 
must  be  recognized  as  valid,  i.  e.  it  must  not  be  rejected  on  the 
pretext  that  the  Vulgate  does  not  contain  the  correct  text  of 
the  Bible.  This  does  not,  however,  mean  that  the  Vulgate  is 
absolutely  free  from  mistakes  and  cannot  and  ought  not  to 
admit  of  any  correction,  but  it  only  means  that  it  contains  no 
mistakes  of  such  a  kind  as  that  a  misleading  doctrine  can  be 
derived  from  them.  This  decision  was  not  intended  to  forbid 
or  exclude  the  use  of  the  original  text,  or  of  other  translations. 

Leo  XIII  says  in  his  Encyclical  on  Holy  Scripture:  "Although  the 
meaning  of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  idioms  is,  as  far  as  substance  is  con- 
cerned, abundantly  clear  from  the  words  of  the  Vulgate,  yet  if  there  be 
anything  ambiguous  or  inaccurate  introduced  therein,  an  examination  of 
the  original  language,  according  to  the  advice  of  Saint  Augustine,  will 
be  if  great  service." 

According  to  Bellarmine  (De  Verio  Dei,  II,  11,  ed.  Mogunt,  1842)  rek 
erence  should  be  made  to  the  original  ( 1 )  when  there  appears  to  be  a  mis- 
take in  the  written  or  printed  Latin  text,  (2)  when  the  Latin  codices 

1  Sancta  synodus  declarat,  ut  Jicec  ipsa  vetus  et  vulgata  editio,  qun 
longo  tot  sceculorum  usu  in  ipsa  ecclesia  probata  est,  in  publide  lectioni- 
bus,  disputationibus,  prcedicationibus  et  expositionibtts  pro  authentica 
hvbeatur  et  ut  nemo  illam  rejicere  audeat  vel  prcesumat. 


THE    BIBLE   AS    A   WHOLE  255 

vary,  (3)  when  a  word  or  thought  is  ambiguous  in  the  Latin,  (4)  in 
order  to  understand  the  peculiar  use  and  emphasis  of  words  in  the  origi- 
nal. Salmeron,  who  was  present  at  the  Council,  uses  similar  language. 
See  Comely,  Introd.,  I,  458;  Comp.,  112. 

16.  As  the  Vulgate  had  suffered  many  alterations  in  conse- 
quence of  having  been  frequently  reproduced  during  a  very  long 
period,  the  Council  at  the  same  session  ordered  that  thence- 
forth only  carefully  revised  editions  of  the  Holy   Scriptures, 
and  especially  of  the  Vulgate,  should  be  issued.1     In  this  way 
the  arbitrary  alterations  of  editors  were  to  be  checked,  and  a 
return  to  the  tradition  of  the  Church  was  pointed  out  as  the 
right  course  to  pursue  in  restoring  the  purity  of  the  Bible  text. 

By  saying  "  as  free  as  possible  from  mistakes  "  the  Church  wished  to 
guard  against  "  corrections  "  in  the  text,  which  are  often  only  the  out- 
come of  private  judgment  and  cause  much  harm.  She  declared  that  the 
old  originals  or  translations  ought  to  be  followed  as  closely  as  possible. 
The  appreciative  treatment  of  the  oldest  discoverable  manuscripts,  which 
in  our  day  is  a  favorite  pursuit  of  scholars,  has  therefore  long  been  de- 
sired and  encouraged  by  the  Church. 

Catholic  scholars  at  once  attempted  to  comply  with  the  wishes 
of  the  Council.  As  early  as  1547  the  theological  faculty  at 
Louvain  -caused  a  text  of  the  Vulgate,  restored  according  to 
strict  rules  of  criticism,  to  be  published  by  one  of  their  mem- 
bers, John  Hentenius,  and  this  was  frequently  reprinted.  This 
text  did  not,  however,  give  universal  satisfaction,  because  it 
subsequently  admitted  a  number  of  readings  to  the  margins,  and 
they  were  likely  to  raise  doubts  as  to  the  accuracy  of  the 
text  itself. 

17.  Meantime  the  Holy  See  had  determined  to  issue  an  offi- 
cial edition  of  the  Vulgate.    After  much  careful  work  upon  it, 
this  Roman  edition  appeared  under  Sixtus  V,  1590,  and  again 
in  a  more  accurate  form  under  Clement  VIII,  1592.    As  some 
misprints  still  occurred  in  the  latter  edition,  a  still  more  care- 
fully revised  reprint  appeared  in  1593  and  1598.    This  edition  is 
now  the  standard  edition  of  the  Church,  and  all  new  impressions 
of  the  Vulgate  must  agree  with  it  word  for  word.    The  Council 
of  Trent  imposed  upon  all  printers  of  Bibles  the  obligation  of 

1  Ut  posthac  sacra  scriptura,  potissimum  vero  hcec  ipsa  vetus  et  vul- 
gata  editio  quam  emendatissime  imprimatur. 


256    HANDBOOK  FOB  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

submitting  their  Bibles  to  the  bishops  and  of  securing  their 
written  approval  for  the  books  (Sess.  4,  de  ed.  et  usu  sacr. 
librorum). 

Valentine  Loch's  Latin  Bible  (Ratisbon,  3d  ed.,  1873)  is  an  accur- 
ate reprint  of  this  Roman  edition,  and  is  issued  with  the  sanction  of 
Karl  August,  Archbishop  of  Munich  and  Freising.  In  1861  a  careful  re- 
print of  the  Clementine  text  of  1593  and  1598  was  published  by  Vercel- 
lone  in  Rome;  and  this  was  copied  at  Augsburg  in  1880. 

Two  English  scholars,  J.  Wordsworth  and  H.  J.  White,  imposed  upon 
themselves  the  task  of  restoring,  with  the  greatest  possible  fidelity,  the 
Vulgate  text  of  the  New  Testament  as  revised  by  Saint  Jerome.  In  doing 
so  they  made  use  of  about  thirty  old  manuscripts,  but  relied  chiefly  on 
the  Codex  Bibliorum  Amiatinus  (see  p.  251).  Their  edition  was  printed 
at  Oxford:  the  Gospels  in  1889-1898  and  the  Acts  in  1905.  This  work, 
like  the  attempts  mentioned  before  (p.  233)  to  restore  the  Greek  text 
of  the  New  Testament,  shows  that  our  Vulgate  need  not  fear  criticism. 
Nevertheless  many  persons  desired  to  have  a  new  edition  authorized  by  the 
Church.  Such  an  edition  appeared  at  Innsbruck  in  1906;  it  is  the  result 
of  very  laborious  studies,  and  follows  the  copy  in  the  Vatican.  P. 
Michael  Hetzenauer,  Biblia  sacra  Vulgatw  editionis.  Large  octavo, 
XXXII,  1143,  n.  173.1 


1  At  the  present  moment  the  Benedictines  are  busy  in  preparing  what 
is  to  be  the  new  official  edition  of  the  Church.  (Letter  of  Pope  Pius  X 
to  Abbot  Gasquet,  Dec.  3,  1907.) 


THIRD  PART 

SPECIAL    INTRODUCTION  —  THE    SACEED    BOOKS 
CONSIDERED    SINGLY 

PRELIMINARY  REMARKS 

IN  a  Special  Introduction  each  of  the  sacred  books  must  be 
dealt  with  separately,  its  contents  stated,  the  date  of  compo- 
sition and  the  author  discussed,  and,  if  need  be,  its  authenticity 
and  textual  purity  defended. 

When  we  call  a  book  authentic,1  we  mean  that  it  is  really 
the  work  of  the  person  to  whom  it  is  ascribed.  Authenticity 
is  proved  partly  by  internal  and  partly  by  external  evidence, 
i.  e.  partly  from  arguments  derived  from  the  book  itself  and 
partly  from  other  testimony. 

A  book  is  said  to  possess  textual  purity  when  it  has  under- 
gone no  essential  alteration  in  the  course  of  time,  but  has  in 
the  main  been  preserved  as  it  left  the  author. 

THE   BOOKS   OF  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 
1.   SURVEY  AND  CLASSIFICATION 

The  books  of  the  Old  Testament  were  produced  gradually 
among  the  Israelites,  and  the  special  introduction  to  it  may  be 
divided  into  four  sections,  corresponding  to  the  four  chief 
periods  of  Israelite  history. 

1.  From  the  beginning  of  the  history  of  Israel  to  the  close 
of  the  Mosaic  legislation  and  the  entrance  of  the  Israelites  into 
Palestine  about  the  year  1400  B.  c.  ;  origin  of  the  Pentateuch. 


(from  avOevTTjs  =  ruler,  originator)  means  proceeding  from 
the  originator,  genuine  (see  p.  254).  When  the  Council  of  Trent  pro- 
claimed the  authenticity  of  the  Vulgate,  a  wider  signification  was  given 
to  the  word,  as  it  included  genuineness  and  textual  purity. 


258    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

2.  From  the  occupation  of  the  Holy  Land  to  the  separation 
of  the  two  kingdoms  of  Juda  and  Samaria  about  920  B.  c.  (or, 
according  to  another  view,  932  B.C.).     The  period  when  the 
sacred  poetry  was  at  its  prime;   origin  of  the  books  of  Josue, 
Judges,  Kuth,  Samuel,  then  of  the  Psalms,  of  Job  and  Canticles, 
later  also  of  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes. 

3.  From  the  separation  of  the  kingdoms  to  the  end  of  the 
Babylonian  Captivity,  536  B.  c.    In  this  period  prophecy  was  at 
its  prime;   origin  of  the  works  of  the  four  major  and  of  most 
of  the  minor  prophets. 

4.  The  period  after  the  Captivity  to  the  time  of  Christ; 
origin  of  the  books  of  Kings,  Chronicles,  Esdras  and  Nehemias, 
Esther,   Tobias,   Judith,   Machabees;    Aggaeus,   Zacharias   and 
Malachias;  Sirach  or  Ecclesiasticus,  "Wisdom. 


FIRST   SECTION 

THE    OLD    TESTAMENT    REVELATION    BEFORE    THE    EN- 
TRANCE OF  THE  ISRAELITES  INTO  PALESTINE 

2.   THE  PENTATEUCH 

1.  Name.  The  only  sacred  book  belonging  to  the  earliest 
period  of  Israelite  history  is  the  Pentateuch 1  (meaning  five 
books),  which  is  at  once  the  book  of  the  law  and  the  history  of 
Israel.  The  Hebrew  name  is  Thora  =  law ; 2  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment it  is  o  i/oVo?. 

Our  names  for  the  single  books,  Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
Numbers  and  Deuteronomy,  are  taken  from  the  Septuagint,  and 
were  given  with  reference  to  the  contents;  the  Vulgate  re- 
tained the  Greek  names,  only  rendering  apiOpoL  by  Numeri. 
In  the  Hebrew  Bible  and  among  the  Rabbis  the  names  of  the 
five  books  are  taken  from  the  initial  word  of  each.  The  first 

1  Tltvre,  five,  and  revxos,  utensil,  tool,  but  in  the  Alexandrian  period  also 
book.  The  name  is  properly  feminine  =  ij  irevT&Tevxos  /3/jSXos,  but  is  mas- 
culine in  Latin,  because  Uber  is  understood.  The  word  Pentateuch  occurs 
first  in  Origen  (Ad  Joh.,  IV,  25.  Reusch,  Einleitung,  p.  10),  and  in  Latin 
first  in  Tertullian  (Adv.  Marc.,  I,  10). 
n,  generally  with  the  article. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    259 

is  Bereshith  =  In  the  beginning;  the  second,  Shemoth  = 
Names,  because  it  begins  "  These  are  the  names " ;  the  third, 
F0//Jgra  ==  And  he  called;  the  fourth,  Vajjedabber  or  Bemid- 
bar  =  A.nd.  [God]  spoke  in  the  desert;  the  fifth,  Debarim  = 
Words  ("  These  are  the  words  "). 

The  Pentateuch  contains  the  earliest  history  of  the  human 
race  *  and  is  at  the  same  time  the  book  of  the  law  governing 
the  people  of  revelation,  who  were  strictly  marked  off  from  poly- 
theistic nations. 

The  division  of  the  work  into  five  books  is  probably  not  due  to 
the  author,  yet  is  very  old.  It  is  quite  certain  that  the  Seventy 
did  not  divide  it,  for  the  division  of  the  Book  of  Psalms  into 
five  parts  is  based  on  the  similar  division  of  the  Book  of  the 
Law. 

2.  Contents.  Genesis  (50  chapters)  contains  the  account  of 
the  Creation  of  the  world  and  of  man,  the  Fall  of  man  and 
its  immediate  consequences,  the  Deluge,  the  dispersion  of  the 
human  race,  the  history  of  Abraham  and  his  descendants  to 
the  death  of  the  Patriarch  Jacob  in  Egypt. 

Exodus  (40  chapters)  contains  the  history  of  Moses,  the 
departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  the  giving  of  the  Law 
on  Sinai,  and  the  first  arrangements  for  the  worship  of  God. 

Leviticus  (sc.  liber)  (27  chapters)  consists  chiefly  of  rules 
for  worship  and  the  persons  engaged  in  it. 

Numeri  or  Numbers  (36  chapters)  contains  lists  of  the  fight- 
ing men  and  of  the  Levites,  the  arrangement  of  the  encamp- 
ments, several  laws  regarding  the  future  abode  of  the  Israelites 
in  Chanaan,  and  Balaam's  blessing.  The  thirty-seven  years  of 
wandering  in  the  wilderness  are  passed  over  in  silence.2 

1  Interest  has  been  awakened  by  a  book  written  by  Merker,  a  German 
officer:    Die  Masai,  ein  ostafrikanisches  Semitenvolk,  1904.     This  race 
migrated  from  the  Arabian  peninsula  into  eastern  Africa  in  prehistoric 
times.     They  have  a  monotheistic  worship  and  are  acquainted  with  al- 
most the  whole  account,  given  in  Genesis,  of  the  early  history  of  mankind, 
Paradise,  the  temptation  by  the  serpent,  the  deluge,  etc. 

2  Fr.  v.  Hummelauer  (Gommentarius  in  Numeros,  Paris,  1899)  tries  to 
prove  that  in  Numbers  xx.  1-11  we  may  assume  the  omission  of  a  consid- 
erable part  of  the  original  history  of  these  thirty-seven  years.     "  Moses 
struck  the  rock  twice  with  his  rod."    The  first  stroke  had  no  effect  on  ac- 
count of  the  want  of  confidence  felt  by  Moses.    Then  the  people  all  re- 


260    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Deuteronomium  or  Deuteronomy  (=  second  law)  (34  chap- 
ters) emphasizes  and  partially  repeats  the  previous  legislation, 
and,  at  its  close,  contains  an  account  of  Moses3  last  words,  his 
death  and  burial. 

Genesis:  I.  Creation,  six  days'  work.1    2.   Second  and  supplementary 


belled  against  him  and  remained  obstinate  for  many  years  (Amos  v.  25, 
etc.;  Acts  vii.  42,  etc.).  The  sin  of  Moses  was  therefore  the  immediate 
cause  of  this  revolt,  and  respect  for  him  led  subsequent  Israelite  writers 
to  suppress  the  sorrowful  events  of  these  thirty-seven  or  thirty-eight 
years.  (  ? )  When  afterwards  Moses'  confidence  in  God  returned,  he  again 
struck  the  rock,  and  this  time  with  success. 

1  Revelation  tells  us  nothing  as  to  the  interpretation  of  the  Hexes- 
meron;  hence  there  are,  on  the  part  of  theologians,  various  opinions 
regarding  it. 

(a)  Saint  Augustine  and  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  VI,  16) 
assume  that  the  six  days  must  be  limited  to  one  moment.  (It  is  true 
that  in  Ecclus.  xviii.  1  we  read:  Creavit  omnia  simul,  but  this  may 
refer  to  the  sudden  creation  of  spirits  and  of  matter  out  of  nothing, 
which  is  mentioned  in  Gen.  i.  1.) 

(6)  The  literal  interpretation  is  that  the  days  of  creation  were  real 
days  of  twenty-four  hours  each,  so  that  God  created  the  world  in  the 
course  of  six  ordinary  days. 

(o)  The  figurative  interpretation  is  that  six  days  are  mentioned  in 
Holy  Scripture  as  employed  in  various  forms  of  creation  because  man 
was  ordered  to  work  for  six  days  and  to  rest  on  the  seventh.  In  this 
way  the  work  of  creation  would  not  have  been  the  foundation  of  our 
week,  but  the  already  existing  institution  of  the  week  would  have  been 
the  reason  for  dividing  the  account  of  creation  into  six  days'  work. 

(d)  The  Vision  theory  is  that  Adam  described  the  work  of  creation 
as  having  been  effected  in  six  days  to  his  descendants,  because  God  in  a 
vision    (tardemah,  as  is  mentioned  in  Gen.  ii.  21  with  regard  to  the 
creation  of  woman)   showed  him  the  various  results  of  creation  on  six 
successive  days.     Cf.  v.  Hummelauer,  Schopfungsbericht. 

(e)  According  to  Zapletal  the  six  days'  work  consists  of  two  parts, 
—  first  to  third  day,  creation  of  places ;    fourth  to  sixth  day,  creation  of 
armies.     This  explanation  is  based  on  the  word  zebaam  =  their  army, 
Genesis  ii.  1.    The  verse  runs :  "  Completed  were  heaven  and  earth  and 
all  their  army."    The  Septuagint  translated  zebaam  by  icoc/nos  avr&v,  and 
so  the  Vulgate  has  ornatus  eorum.     The  accurate  translation,  however, 
would  have  been  crrparbs  avruv  or  ir\ij0os  avruv  =  exercitus  eorum.     The 
scholastics,  following  the  Vulgate,  distinguish  opus  distinotionis  (first  to 
third  days)   and  opus  ornatus   (fourth  to  sixth  days) ;  the  latter  should 
strictly  be  opus  exercitus.     Zapletal  thinks  that  the  reference  is  to  the 
heavenly  bodies  (fourth  day),  creatures  living  in  water  and  in  air  (fifth 
day),  land  animals  and  man   (sixth  day)  ;    these  constitute  the  army  or 
armies.     This  division  corresponds  to  the  six  working  days  of  mankind. 
Zapletal,  therefore,  thinks  the  account  of  creation  is  not  strictly  histori- 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    261 

account  of  the  creation.     The  first  human  beings  in  Paradise.1     3.    The 
Fall  of  man.    4.    Cain  and  Abel.    Cain's  descendants.     5.   Adam's  gene- 


cal,  which  is  a  questionable  doctrine.  Moreover  we  should  notice  that  the 
creation  of  light  on  the  first  day  is  not  the  production  of  a  place,  and 
that  plants,  created  on  the  third  day,  also  form  part  of  the  army  of 
the  earth.  Reference  is  made  to  the  meaning  of  zala  =  to  move,  but  it 
also  means  to  serve  ( e.  g.  Ex.  xxxviii.  8 ) .  God's  army  is  the  vast  host 
of  creatures  occupying  heaven  and  earth  (angels,  stars,  plants,  beasts 
and  men).  They  are  witnesses  to  God's  power,  and  do  Him  service 
against  those  who  deny  Him. 

(f)  Allusion  must  be  made  to  a  theory  that  at  the  beginning  the 
alternating  periods  of  light  and  darkness  were  much  longer  than  they 
now  are,  so  that  each  of  the  six  days  of  creation  may  have  embraced 
thousands  or  millions  of  years,  since  they  were  God's  days  resembling 
God's  Sabbath,  which  still  continues.  This  is  called  the  concordistic 
theory. 

It  has  the  advantage  of  being  capable  of  reconciliation  with  the  ac- 
count that  evidently  purports  to  be  historical.  We  may  also  notice 
Thoene's  opinion  that  the  days  of  creation  were  probably  analogous  to 
the  seventh  day  which  is  not  yet  over.  As  this  day  is  composed  of 
many  days  of  evening  and  morning,  so  it  may  have  been  in  the  history 
of  creation. 

With  regard  to  the  age  of  the  story  of  creation,  Kaulen  rightly  re- 
marks that  it  was  taken  from  tradition  and  placed  by  Moses  at  the  be- 
ginning of  his  law.  The  investigations  of  modern  scholars  offer  no 
opposition  to  the  theory  that  the  story  was  brought  to  the  West  from 
their  Chaldaean  home  by  the  original  ancestors  of  the  people  of  Israel. 
It  differs  considerably  from  the  stories  of  creation  handed  down  by  the 
Babylonians  and  other  nations.  The  heathen  races  introduced  fanciful 
polytheistic  elements  into  the  tradition,  whereas  the  Bible  account  is 
monotheistic  and  contains  the  absolute  truth,  viz.  the  revelation  of  God 
to  the  first  human  beings.  That  this  account  is  connected  with  the 
Babylonian  legends,  now  being  discovered  by  means  of  excavations  in 
Babylon,  is  quite  explicable,  for  Babylon  was  the  first  home  of  civiliza- 
tion for  the  human  race.  Cf.  Genesis  xi. 

1  Wellhausen  thinks  that  this  account  may  be  referred  to  the  class 
of  Oriental  fables  that  often  contain  stories  of  magic  gardens  and  pal- 
aces. He  proposes,  therefore,  to  set  it  aside.  May  not  the  reverse  be 
the  truth?  May  not  the  old  tradition  of  Paradise  underlie  these  Orien- 
tal tales?  Jeremias  (xxxii.  19)  declares  all  human  beings  to  be  chil- 
dren of  Adam.  Such  inconvenient  evidence  is  rejected  by  modern  critics 
as  being  due  to  "later  interpolations,"  for  they  believe  that  the  story 
of  creation  must  have  been  composed  during  the  Babylonian  captivity. 
The  situation  of  Paradise  has  been  much  discussed.  Kaulen  places  it 
in  Armenia,  and  Hoberg  and  Schb'pfer  do  the  same;  von  Hummelauer 
thinks  it  was  in  Babylonia,  and  so  does  Portner;  Hommel  refers  it  to 
Arabia.  In  his  work  on  the  rivers  of  Paradise  (Paradiesesftiisse),  1901, 
Engelkemper  supports  the  old  theory  that  the  Euphrates,  Tigris,  Indus 
or  Ganges,  and  Nile  are  meant,  and  he  assumes  that  the  writer  of  Gene- 


262    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

alogy.  6.  Decay  of  morality.  Noe  and  the  ark.  7.  Deluge.1  8,  9.  End 
of  the  flood.  Covenant  with  Noe,  Sem,  Cham  and  Japhet.  10.  Noe's 
genealogy.  11.  Building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel.  Dispersion  of  mankind. 


sis  accommodated  his  statements  to  the  geographical  knowledge  of  his 
day.  It  should,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  great  geological  changes 
have  taken  place  since  the  time  of  the  first  human  beings,  so  that  there 
may  have  been  a  river  at  one  time  in  Asia,  the  name  of  which  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  African  Nile.  Engelkemper  declares  Eastern  Armenia  to 
have  been  the  place  where  Paradise  was  situated.  Fr.  Delitzsch  prefers 
Babylonia,  and  thinks  the  rivers  of  Paradise  were  channels  of  the 
Euphrates.  Kaulen's  view  has  found  most  adherents  amongst  Catholics, 
at  least  up  to  the  present  time. 

1  With  reference  to  this  event  see  R.  de  Girard,  Le  deluge  devant  la 
critique  historique,  Fribourg,  1892,  and  Le  charactere  naturel  du  deluge, 
Fribourg,  1894;  also  A.  Trissl,  f^undfluttheorie  wnd  Gletschertheorie, 
and  Sundflut  oder  Gletscher,  Ratisbon,  1893-94.  That  this  catastrophe 
actually  occurred  is  generally  admitted,  because  the  stories  regarding 
it  are  so  widely  spread.  The  existence  of  about  sixty-eight  autochtho- 
nous accounts  of  a  deluge  can  be  proved,  so  that  here  we  are  dealing 
with  a  story  known  all  over  the  world.  There  is  not  the  same  consensus 
of  opinion  regarding  the  extent  of  the  flood,  whether  it  affected  the 
whole  earth  and  all  mankind,  or  only  part  of  it.  Nor  are  scholars  agreed 
as  to  whether  it  was  absolutely  miraculous,  or,  in  part  at  least,  natural. 
Schanz,  Schb'pfer,  Hammerschmid,  v.  Hummelauer  and  Hoberg,  Erkl.  d. 
Genesis,  all  believe  that  the  flood  covered  only  a  limited  area,  but 
Kaulen  emphatically  opposes  this  view,  and  so  do  Trissl  and  Gander. 

REASONS  for  believing  that  the  Deluge  was  general :  ( 1 )  In  II  Saint 
Peter  iii.  5,  etc.,  the  Deluge  is  put  on  a  level  with  the  final  destruction 
of  the  whole  world,  which  is  to  be  effected  by  means  of  fire.  (2)  What 
would  have  been  the  object  of  building  the  ark  if  Noe  and  his  family 
could  have  found  safety  by  migrating?  (3)  The  language  of  Holy  Scrip- 
ture clearly  implies  that  the  catastrophe  was  general,  and  it  is  a  gen- 
eral rule  in  hermeneutics  that  a  passage  must  be  explained  literally,  as 
long  as  there  is  no  absolute  necessity  for  departing  from  the  literal 
sense.  (4)  The  Fathers  and  the  exegetical  tradition  of  the  Church  as- 
sume that  the  Deluge  was  general.  (5)  The  Church  does  the  same  in 
her  liturgy. 

Most  of  the  objections  to  the  general  character  of  the  Deluge  are 
based  upon  the  assumption  that  it  must  have  been  a  merely  natural 
event.  But  the  language  of  Holy  Scripture  indicates  that  it  was  due  to 
God's  immediate  intervention,  and  was  therefore  something  miraculous, 
and  this  removes  all  difficulty  as  to  its  being  possible  by  natural  means; 
it  does  not  prelude  the  co-operation  of  the  forces  of  nature  but  abso- 
lutely assumes  it.  The  same  remark  applies  to  reports  of  other,  later 
events,  e.g.  the  plagues  of  Egypt.  (We  must  acknowledge  that  at  the 
present  time  the  theory  that  the  Deluge  did  not  affect  the  whole  world, 
but  only  the  inhabited  parts  of  it,  and  consequently  all  mankind,  is  the 
sententia  communior  of  Bible  commentators.  It  seems,  however,  scarcely 
in  conformity  with  the  language  of  the  text.) 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    263 

12,  13.    Call  of  Abram  and  his  migration.     14.    His  victory  over  four 
kings.     Melchisidech,  King  of  Salem.1     15.    God's  covenant  with  Abram 
16.    Hagar  and  Ismael.     17.    Circumcision.     18.    God's  intercourse  with 
Abraham.     19.    Destruction  of  Sodom.     20.    Abraham  and  Abimelech. 
21.   Birth  of  Isaac,  expulsion  of  Ismael.    22.  Abraham's  trial  on  Mount 
Moria.     23.    Death   of    Sara.      Burial   place   in    Hebron.      24.    Rebecca. 
25,  26.    Ketura,  Abraham's  death.    Ismael's  descendants.     Isaac  and  his 
sons  Jacob  and  Esau.    Abimelech.    27.   Jacob  outwits  Esau.    28.   Jacob's 
migration.      The    ladder    from    heaven.      29.    Jacob    with   Laban.      His 
wives,  Lia  and  Rachel,  Bala  and  Zelpha.    30.    Jacob's  children.    Compact 
with  Laban.    31.    Return  of  Jacob.    32,  33.    Jacob's  wrestling  with  God, 
Israel;    meeting  with  Esau.     34.    Ravishing  of  Dina,  destruction  of  the 
Sichemites.     35.    Benjamin.     Rachel's  death.     36.    Tribes  of  the  Edo- 
mites,  i.  e.  of  Esau's  descendants.     37.    Sale  of  Joseph.     38.    Juda  and 
Thamar.     39-41.     Joseph  in  Egypt.     42-45.     He  tests  his  brethren.     46, 
47.   Jacob  -and  his  family  migrate  to  Egypt.     48.   Jacob  adopts  Joseph's 
sons.     49.    Jacob's  blessing  given  to  his  sons;     his   death.     50.     His 
burial  at  Hebron. 

Exodus:  1.  Enslavement  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt.  2.  Moses.  3. 
The  burning  bush.  4.  Moses'  mission.  5.  Moses  and  Aaron  before 
Pharao.2  6.  Increased  oppression  of  the  Israelites.  7-10.  The  ten 
plagues  of  Egypt.  12.  Institution  of  the  Pasch.  Flight  from  Egypt. 

13.  Consecration  of  the  firstborn.     The  journey  eastward.     14.    Passage 
of  the  Red  Sea.     15.    Canticle  of  Moses.     16.    Murmuring  of  the  people. 
Quails.     Manna.     17.    Renewal  of  the  journey.     Water  out  of  the  rock. 
Victory  over  the  Amalekites.     18.    Jethro   comes  to   Moses.      19.    The 
people  at  Sinai.     20.    The  Decalogue.     21-23.     Further  legislation.     24. 
Conclusion  of  the  Covenant.     25.    Rules  regarding  the  ark  of  the  Cove- 
nant, the  table  for  the  loaves  of  proposition  and  the  candlestick.     26. 
The  Tabernacle.     27.    The  Altar  in  the  Court.     28.     The  dress  of  the 
priests.     29.    The  consecration  of  the  priests.     30.    The  altar  of  incense 
and  other  furniture.     31.    Sabbath  observance.     Tables  of  the  Law.     32. 
The  golden  calf.    33,  34.   New  tables  of  the  Law.    35.   Free-will  offerings 
for  making  the  Tabernacle  and  all  belonging  to  it.     36-40.   The  Taber- 
nacle and  its  furniture  are  made. 

Leviticus:    1-7.    Regulations  for  the  various  sacrifices.    8.   Consecra- 

1  The  genuine   character   of  this  chapter,  formerly  rejected  by  the 
critics,  cannot  now  be  questioned.    King  Amraphel  of  Sennaar  (Gen.  xiv. 
1)   has  been  identified  with  King  Hammurabi  of  Babylon.      (See  L.  W. 
King's  "  Letters  and  Inscriptions  of  Hammurabi,"  London,  1901.)     Mom- 
mert  has  proved  that  Salem  is  the  old  city  of  Jerusalem. 

2  Sayce,  "  Fresh  Light  from  Ancient  Monuments  "   ( p.  63 ) ,  identifies 
the  Pharao  of  the  exodus  with  Meneptah  II,  who  became  king  in  1325. 
Most  probably,  however,  he  lived  in  the  fifteenth  century  and  belonged  to 

.the  eighteenth  dynasty.  Amenophis  II  (1461-1436)  seems  to  have  been 
the  Pharao  of  the  Exodus.  (Miketta  has  showed  that  Israel  must  have 
entered  the  country  west  of  the  Jordan  not  later  than  1392.)  In  his  ac- 
count of  his  victories,  Meneptah  mentions  the  Israelites  among  the 
tribes  inhabiting  Palestine, 


264    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

tion  of  Aaron  and  his  sons.  9.  Aaron's  first  sacrifice.  10.  Punishment 
of  his  sons  Nadab  and  Abiu.  11.  Clean  and  unclean  beasts.  12.  Puri- 
fication of  women  after  childbirth.  13,  14.  Laws  concerning  leprosy. 
15.  Sexual  uncleanness.  16.  The  Day  of  Atonement.  17.  Sacrifices  to 
be  offered  only  in  the  sanctuary.  Eating  blood  forbidden.  18.  Marriage 
laws.  19.  Various  rules  governing  the  life  of  the  people.  20.  Crimes 
to  be  punished  with  death.  21,  22.  Cleanness  of  priests  and  sacrifices. 

23.  Holy  days  to  be  kept.     24.    Loaves  of  proposition  or  shewbread. 
Punishment  of  blasphemy.     25.    Sabbatical  year   and  year   of  jubilee. 

26.  Blessing  for  observance  and  punishment  for  transgression  of  the 
commandments.    27.   Vows. 

Numeri  or  Numbers:  1,  2.  Numbering  of  the  people  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  camp.  3,  4.  Number  and  order  of  the  Levites.  5.  Sacrifice 
of  jealousy.  6.  Nazirites.  Aaron's  blessing.  7.  Dedication  offerings 
made  by  the  heads  of  the  tribes.  8.  Dedication  of  the  Levites.  9.  Pasch 
on  Sinai.  10.  Regulations  for  blowing  the  trumpets  on  special  occa- 
sions. Departure  from  Sinai  in  definite  order.  11.  Quails  for  food.  12. 
Mary's  murmuring  and  its  punishment.  13.  Spies  sent  to  Chanaan. 
14.  Murmuring  of  the  people,  and  their  punishment.  15.  Laws  regard- 
ing eating  the  flesh  of  animals  sacrificed.  A  Sabbath  breaker.  16.  Sedi- 
tion of  Core,  Dathan  and  Abiron.  17.  Aaron's  rod  that  blossomed. 
18.  Duties  and  privileges  of  the  Levites.  19.  Sacrifice  of  the  red  cow. 
20.  Mary's  death.  Want  of  water.  The  Edomitea  refuse  to  allow  the 
people  to  pass.  Aaron's  death.  Eleazar  made  high  priest.  21.  The 
brazen  serpent.  Victory  over  the  Amorites.  22-24.  Balaam  is  required 
to  curse  the  Israelites,  but  blesses  them  instead.  25.  Service  of  Beel- 
phegor  and  its  punishment.  26.  Numbering  of  the  people.  27.  Law 
of  inheritance.  Moses  beholds  the  Promised  Land  from  afar;  he  ap- 
points Josue  to  be  his  successor.  28-30.  Rules  about  sacrifices  and  vows. 
31.  Victory  over  the  Madianites.  32.  Settlements  of  the  tribes  of  Ruben, 
and  Gad,  and  half  of  Manasses.  33.  List  of  the  encampments.  34. 
Boundaries  of  the  land  assigned  to  Israel.  35.  Levite  cities  and  cities  of 
refuge.  36.  Marriages  within  the  tribes. 

Deuteronomium,  Deuteronomy:  1-4.  Moses  before  his  death  reminds 
the  people  what  God  has  done  for  Israel  through  him.  5.  He  repeats  the 
Decalogue.  6.  He  requires  them  to  love  God  and  warns  them,  7,  against 
intercourse  with  the  Gentiles.  8.  He  impresses  upon  them  the  necessity 
of  obedience  to  God,  and  9,  10,  reminds  them  of  God's  benefits.  11.  A 
blessing  is  to  follow  obedience  and  a  curse  disobedience.  12.  The  people 
are  to  have  one  single  place  of  sacrifice.  13.  Heathen  customs  and  wor- 
ship are  to  be  avoided,  14,  also  the  eating  of  unclean  animals.  15.  The 
year  of  remission.  16.  Solemn  festivals  to  be  observed.  17.  Rules  for 
judges  and  kings.  18.  Levites  and  prophets.  19.  Rights  of  sanctuary 
and  protection  of  witnesses.  20.  Laws  relating  to  war.  21.  Family 
relations.  22.  Immorality  and  adultery.  23.  Various  rules  of  life. 

24.  Divorce.     25.    Levirate  marriage,  etc.     26.    First  fruits  and  tithes. 

27.  Stones  to  be  erected  as  memorials.     28.    Curses  and  blessings  in 
proportion  to  the  keeping  of  the  law.     29.    Renewal  of  the  Covenant. 
30.   Be  faithful  to  your  God!     31.    Moses  gives  the  written  Law  to  the 
priests  and  elders,  ordering  them  to  read  it  every  seven  years  to  the 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    265 

people.  Josue  is  appointed  to  succeed  him.  32,  33.  Moses'  song  of 
praise,  his  prophecy  and  blessing.  34.  Moses  dies  in  the  Land  of  Moab; 
Josue  enters  on  his  office. 


AGE   AND   AUTHORSHIP   OF   THE   PENTATEUCH1 

(a)  Criticism 

Both  the  Jewish  and  the  Christian  traditions  ascribe  to  the 
Pentateuch  a  very  high  antiquity,  for  they  regard  Moses2  as 
its  author,  and  believe  that  he  wrote  it  about  1500  B.  c.,  or  not 
long  after.  This  was  the  universally  accepted  opinion  until  the 
seventeenth  century.  At  the  present  time  it  is  absolutely  re- 
jected by  rationalistic  criticism,  and  the  work,  as  we  have  it, 
is  assigned  to  the  period  following  the  Captivity. 

The  English  philosopher  Hobbes  (ob.  1679),  the  French  writer  PeyrSre 
(ob.  1676)  and  the  Jew  Spinoza  (ob.  1677)  forestalled  the  modern  critics. 
In  his  "  Leviathan,"  III,  33,  Hobbes  laid  down  the  principle  that  we 
ought  to  try  to  ascertain  their  date  of  composition  from  the  contents  of 
the  books  of  the  Bible,  and  from  internal  evidence  Moses  could  not  be  re- 
garded as  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch.  Peyrere,  in  his  work  on  Prge- 
Adamites,  maintained  that  the  Pentateuch  was  the  work  of  several 
authors.  Spinoza  (Tractatus  theol.-polit.,  c.  7-10)  arrived  at  practically 
the  same  results  as  modern  rationalistic  critics,  and  assigned  all  the  his- 
torical books  of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  time  of  Esdras. 

A  great  impetus  was  given  to  the  new  criticism  in  the  eighteenth 
century  by  J.  Astruc  (ob.  1766),  a  French  physician,  whose  book,  Con- 
jeatures  sur  les  m6moires  originaux,  dont  il  paroit  que  Moyse  s'est  servi 
pour  composer  le  livre  de  la  Genese,  was  published  in  1753.  In  it  he 
drew  attention  to  the  various  names  for  God  in  the  Hebrew  text  of  Gene- 
sis. Some  portions  contain  the  name  Elohim  exclusively,  others  no  less 
exclusively  the  name  Jehovah  (Yahiveh),  while  in  others  the  names 
alternate.3  For  this  reason  Astruc  assumes  that  there  were  two  chief 
originals,  one  referring  to  God  as  Elohim  and  the  other  as  Yahweh,  and 

1  It  may  be  noticed  that  the  Pentateuch  is  discussed  twice  in  the 
present  work   (pp.  37-56,  and  pp.  265-274).     This  was  unavoidable,  as 
in  one  place  we  are  dealing  with  the  history  of  Israel  and  in  the  other 
with  the  sacred  literature.     The  two  passages  supplement,  and  do  not 
contradict,  one  another. 

2  The  name  Moses  is  regarded  by  Doller,  who  follows  Lepsius  and 
Ebers,  as  formed  from  the  Egyptian  mes,  mesu  =  Son.    Schenz  agrees  with 
Exodus  ii.  10  and  thinks  it  is  a  Coptic  word,  meaning  "  drawn  out  of  the 
water.'* 

*  e.g.  in  chapters  i.,  v.,  viii.  1-19  God  is  always  called  Elohim;    in 
iii.,  iv.,  x.,  xii.-xvi.    He  is  called  Yahweh.     (In  the  Greek  text  Geos  and 
in  the  Latin,  Deus  and  Dominus.) 


266    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

these  were  used  by  Moses.  Astruc  thinks  that  he  can  detect  traces  of  at 
least  two  other  originals,  so  that  Moses'  work  originally  contained  four 
columns  that  were  subsequently  confused.  He  does  not  doubt  that  Moses 
was  the  author. 

Astruc's  opinions  were  made  known  in  Germany  by  Eichhorn  (ob. 
1827),  a  Protestant,  and  gave  rise  to  a  violent  dispute  that  has  now 
lasted  over  one  hundred  years  among  Protestant  scholars,  though  Catho- 
lics have  not  paid  much  attention  to  it.  Eichhorn  believed  Moses  to  be 
the  author  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  imagined  that  he  had  combined  an 
Elohim  history  with  a  Yahweh  history,  without  removing  superfluous 
passages,  had  then  inserted  additions  of  his  own  that  he  wrote  from  time 
to  time,  and  shortly  before  his  death  had  completed  the  work  by  writing 
Deuteronomy.  Ilgen  (ob.  1834)  followed  Eichhorn,  but  thought  he 
could  trace  no  less  than  17  originals,  10  of  which  he  ascribed  to  the  first 
Elohist,  5  to  the  second,  and  2  to  the  Yahwist.  The  whole  theory  as 
upheld  by  Astruc,  Eichhorn  and  Ilgen  was  called  the  Documentary 
Hypothesis. 

The  Fragmentary  Hypothesis  was  the  next  put  forward.  In  1802 
Vater  (ob.  1826)  brought  out  a  Commentary  on  Genesis,  in  which  he  ex- 
pressed this  opinion  regarding  the  Pentateuch :  The  five  books  are  made 
up  of  fragments,  some  large  and  some  small,  but  originally  not  closely 
connected.  Genesis,  for  instance,  consists  of  thirty-nine  such  fragments, 
strung  together  by  some  one  who  collected  them  and  was  anxious  that 
none  of  them  should  be  lost.  This  was  not  Moses,  but  a  much  later 
writer.  Hartmann  (ob.  1838)  followed  Vater's  lines,  and  assigned  the 
formation  of  the  Pentateuch  to  the  time  of  the  Captivity. 

It  is  plain,  however,  that  the  Pentateuch  is  no  mere  collection  of  stray 
fragments,  and  so  the  Fragmentary  Hypothesis  had  not  many  supporters. 

Ewald  (ob.  1875)  in  his  Komposition  der  Genesis,  that  appeared  in 
1823,  recognized  the  principle  of  unity  running  through  it,  and  thought 
it  possible  to  reconcile  the  variation  in  the  names  given  to  God  with  its 
authorship  by  one  man,  as  he  might  have  used  now  the  one  and  now  the 
other  name  with  a  definite  intention.  This  argument  exploded  the  Frag- 
tary  Hypothesis. 

The  next  is  known  as  the  Supplementary  Hypothesis.  Bohlen  (ob. 
1839),  De  Wette  (ob.  1849),  Bleek  (ob.  1859),  Tuch  (ob.  1867),  Lengerke 
(ob.  1857)  and  Delitzsch  (ob.  1890)  declared:  We  must  admit  that  there 
were  two  authors,  one  of  whom  simply  expanded  the  other's  work.  The 
original  work  was  that  of  an  Elohist,  the  supplementary  portions  were 
written  by  a  Yahwist.  The  former  was  a  priest  who  lived  about  the  time 
of  Saul;  the  latter  during  Solomon's  reign. 

This  Supplementary  Hypothesis  did  not  meet  with  universal  ap- 
proval. Against  it  was  the  argument  that  the  Yahwistis  portions 
contain  evidence  of  being  original,  so  that  they  cannot  be  regarded 
as  mere  additions.  Eventually,  therefore,  scholars  came  back  to  the  Docu- 
mentary Hypothesis  (Hupfeld,  ob.  1866,  Knobel,  ob.  1863,  Schrader, 
Kuenen,  ob.  1891,  and  Dillmann,  ob.  1894).  They  believed  that  there  were 
several  sources  whence  the  author  or  authors  had  derived  their  informa- 
tion. Moses  could  not  be  the  author,  as  the  work  belonged  to  a  much 
later  period. 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    267 

J.  Wellhausen,  Professor  at  Gottingen,  basing  his  studies  on  the  earlier 
writings  of  Reuss  and  Graf,  has  worked  out  this  documentary  hypothesis 
most  thoroughly,  and  it  owes  its  name  chiefly  to  him.  Stade,  Budde, 
Cornill,  Kautzsch  and  others  have  written  in  accordance  with  his  views. 
They  distinguish  four  original  documents,  which  were  put  together  to 
form  the  present  Pentateuch  at  the  time  of  Esdras  and  Nehemias  or  not 
long  after:  the  first  was  the  work  of  a  Yahwist  J,1  the  second  of  an  Elo- 
hist  E,  the  third  is  Deuteronomy  D,  written  and  published  during  the 
reign  of  Josias  (623)  and  the  fourth  authority  was  the  priesthood  P, 
from  Babylon.  (Cf.  p.  40.) 

In  answer  to  these  hypotheses,  which  are  now  claimed  to  be 
irrefutable  and  true,  the  following  arguments  may  be  brought 
forward  in 


(b)  Defense  of  the  Mosaic  Origin  of  the  Pentateuch 

The  claim  that  the  Pentateuch  is  the  work  of  Moses  is  not  a 
denial  that  there  are  other  constituents  in  it.  We  may  admit 
that  Moses  incorporated  earlier  documents  and  records  into  his 
work.2  No  one  can  doubt  that  the  use  of  writing  was  known 
at  the  time  of  Moses  and  long  before. 

There  is  no  tradition  among  the  Israelites  of  any  period  when  the  art 
of  writing  was  unknown  to  them.  It  has  been  asserted  that  the  prophets 
Elias  and  Eliseus  (900  B.  c.)  must  have  been  ignorant  of  it,  as  no  written 
works  have  come  down  from  them,  and  Amos  (after  800)  is  the  earliest 
prophet  whose  writings  are  extant  ( Benzinger,  "  Arch./'  289 ) .  The 
Mesa  stone,  however  ( 896 ) ,  proves  not  only  that  the  art  of  writing  was 
known  long  before  the  time  of  Amos,  but  also  that  it  had  been  long  in 
use,  for  the  inscription  on  the  stone  shows  an  unmistakable  tendency  to 
cursive  script,  such  as  could  result  only  from  a  long-continued  develop- 
ment.3 At  the  time  of  David  (1055-1015)  there  was  already  a  "re- 
corder" at  court  (II  Kings  (Sam.)  viii.  17,  xx,  25),  and  David  himself 


1  For  the  sake  of  brevity,  it  is  usual  to  designate  these  "  original  docu- 
ments," to  which  reference  has  often  to  be  made,  by  letters.  Kloster- 
mann  and  Strack  add  as  a  fifth  document  the  "  Law  of  Sanctity  "  ( Lev. 
xvii.-xxvi. ) ,  which  they  designate  by  H.  Steuernagel  (Allg.  Einl.  in  d. 
HexateucTi,  Gottingen,  1900),  adds  further  R  =  revision  and  union  of  the 
various  fragments.  This  author  accepts  the  documentary  hypothesis  for 
the  solution  of  the  problem  as  a  whole,  but  also  the  fragmentary  and 
supplementary  hypotheses  for  that  of  individual  problems.  Cf.  also 
Gunkel  (Genesis,  1901),  who  also  believes  that  some  one  finally  edited 
the  whole. 

3  Papal  Bible  Commission,  June  27,  1906. 

8  See  above,  p.  46. 


268    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

wrote  a  letter  to  Joab  and  sent  it  by  Urias  (II  Kings  (Sam.)  xi.  14,  15). 
Long  before  this  period  there  had  been  communication  in  writing  between 
Egypt  and  Western  Asia,  as  Cornill  (p.  14)  admits.  The  Egyptians, 
whose  wisdom  Moses  had  acquired,  are  known  as  having  been  fond  of 
writing.1  Their  learned  men  were  called  "  scribes."  The  largest  extant 
papyrus  (Prisse,  Paris)  belongs  to  the  time  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty,  and 
partly  to  the  reign  of  Pharao  Snefru,  about  2800  B.  c.  Moses  may  very 
well  have  come  into  the  possession  of  written  documents  and  have  added 
to  them,  thus  compiling  the  Pentateuch,2  and  he  was  certainly  not  the 
only  Israelite  who  had  acquired  the  art  of  writing  in  Egypt. 

Various  glosses  and  additions  of  later  date  have  undoubtedly 
been  incorporated  into  Moses'  work ; 3  such,  are,  e.  g.  Gen.  xii.  6, 
xiii.  7,  xxii.  14,  xxxvi.  31,  etc.;  Ex.  xvi.  35  (cf.  Jos.  v.  12). 
The  last  chapter  (xxxiv.)  of  Deuteronomy  seems  certainly  to 
have  been  written  by  Josue,  as  Jewish  tradition  records.  The 
following  arguments  support  the  theory  that  Moses  was  the  author 
of  the  entire  Pentateuch: 

1.  The  Pentateuch  itself  names  Moses  as  its  author.     Deu- 
teronomy xxxi,  9 :  "  Moses  wrote  this  law  and  delivered  it  to  the 
priests/'     24-27:  "After  Moses  had  wrote  the  words  of  this 
law  in  a  volume,  and  finished  it,  he  commanded  the  Levites 
.  .  .  saying:   Take  this  book,  and  put  it  in  the  side  of  the  ark 
of  the  covenant  of  the  Lord  your  God :   that  it  may  be  there  for 
a  testimony  against  thee,  for  I  know  thy  obstinacy."    It  is  also 
frequently  stated  that  Moses  wrote  down  this  or  that  regulation 
(Ex.  xxiv.  4,  xxxiv.  27;   Num.  xxxiii.  2). 

2.  The  Jewish  tradition,  which  has  never  been  contradicted, 
always  regards  the  Law  as  being  of  Mosaic  origin.    The  various 
parties  among  the  Jews,  the  Jewish  writers  Josephus  and  Philo, 
and  the  whole  nation  both  in  and  beyond  Palestine,  are  unani- 

1  "  Every  object,  down  to  the  roughest  bits  of  stone,  was  covered  with 
written  characters.    In  public  and  private  life  papyrus  served  as  a  means 
of  communication."    Brugsch,  Aegyptologie,  87. 

2  Cf.   Winckler,  Die  Tontafeln  von  T  ell-el- Amarna    (5th  vol.  of  the 
Keilinschrift.  BibliotheJc,  Berlin,  1896).    This  important  discovery  shows 
that  in  1500  B.  c.  Babylonian  civilization  had  reached  Upper  Egypt,  for 
the  script  and  language  of  these  tablets  are  both  Assyrian-Babylonian. 
News  and  letters  were  constantly  passing  to  and  fro  from  the  Euphrates 
to  the  Nile. 

3  It  is  possible,  however,  that  many  of  these  remarks  nevertheless  came 
down  from  Moses  himself. 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  COJSTSIDEKED  SINGLY    269 

mous  in  declaring  the  Pentateuch  to  have  been  the  work  of 
Moses,  actually  written  by  him.  This  tradition  points  to  a  long 
recognized  fact.  It  cannot  reasonably  be  supposed  that  a  whole 
nation  allowed  itself  to  be  deceived  by  forgeries  and  spurious 
documents. 

3.  It   has   already   been   shown    (p.    48,   etc.)    that   in   the 
literature  of  the  Jews  the  Pentateuch  has  always  been  known 
and  recognized  as  the  work  of  Moses. 

4.  Attention  has  also  been  drawn  (p.  52,  etc.)  to  the  fact 
that  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  is  evidence  that  the  book  ex- 
isted at  a  very  remote  period  in  the  history  of  the  Israelites. 

5.  Jesus  Christ  expressly  confirmed  the  Jewish  belief  that 
Moses  had  drawn  up  the  Book  of  the  Law,  when  He  said  (John 
v.  46,  47)  :  "If  you  did  believe  Moses,  you  would  perhaps  believe 
me  also;    for  he  wrote  of  me.     But  if  you  do  not  believe  his 
writings,  how  will  you  believe  my  words  ?  "    Cf.  also  Matt.  viii. 
4,  xix.  7;   Mark  i.  44,  vi.  10,  x.  3,  xii.  26;  Luke  v.  14,  xx.  28, 
xxiv.  44;   John  vii.  19,  viii.  5. 

6.  Other    evidence    is    derived    from    the    structure    of    the 
Pentateuch. 

(a)  The  work  professes  to  have  originated  in  the  wilderness.1 
From  the  second  book  onwards  it  contains  constant  references 
to  life  in  encampments.  The  Tabernacle  was  made  of  acacia 
wood,  and  the  sacred  furniture  of  the  same  material;  there  is 
no  mention  of  cedars  and  cypresses,  to  which  allusion  is  made 
so  often  later  in  Palestine.  The  acacia  is  the  only  tree  that 
flourishes  in  the  valleys  of  the  Sinai  peninsula  and  can  be  used 
for  building  purposes  (cf.  p.  69).  Some  creatures,  which  might 
be  eaten,  occur  in  the  wilderness,  but  not  in  Palestine.  The 
hides  of  the  tacJiasch  (sea  cow)  (Ex.  xxvi.  14)  were  unknown 
to  the  later  Israelites;  the  only  other  place  where  the  name 
tachasch  is  found  is  Ezechiel  xvi.  10.2  Only  an  eye  witness  could 
know  how  many  palms  and  springs  there  were  at  Elim  (Ex.  xv. 

1  By  wilderness  we  must  not  understand  a  sandy  desert  like  the 
Sahara,  but  only  an  uninhabited  and  uncultivated  country. 

2  "  I  shod  thee  with  tachasch."    It  is  plain  that  the  Israelites  in  later 
times  were  unacquainted  with  this  animal,  otherwise  the  name  would 
have  been  translated   in   some  way  and  made  intelligible.     Cf.   p.   72. 
(N.  B.    The  Douay  reads  "violet-colored  shoes.") 


270    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 

27),  or  which  men  carried  away  the  corpses  of  Aaron's  sons 
(Lev.  x.  4),  etc. 

(b)  The  author  knew  Egypt  very  well,  and  assumed  that  his 
earliest  readers  were  equally  familiar  with  it.     In  Genesis  xiii. 
10  (where  we  ought  to  follow  the  Peshitto  and  read  Zoan),  the 
pasture  land  near  the  Jordan  is  compared  with  Lower  Egypt. 
In  Numbers  xiii.  .23  we  read  that  Hebron  was  older  than  the 
Egyptian  town  of  Zoan.     The   Israelites   are  warned  against 
imitating  Egyptian  customs  (Lev.  xviii.  3).     The  dress  of  the 
priests  resembles  that  of  the  Egyptian  priests.     In  the  history 
of  the  Patriarchs  the  description  given  of  Egypt  exactly  agrees 
with  the  accounts  taken  from  the  oldest  monuments  that  have 
been  discovered.    A  few  expressions  even  are  given  in  the  Egyp- 
tian language.1    A  foreigner,  writing  at  a  later  date,  could  not 
have  possessed  such  knowledge  of  ancient  Egypt.     The  author 
and  his  earliest  readers  must  have  been  long  resident  there. 

(c)  The  author  and  the  people  of  his  nation  knew  practically 
nothing  of  Chanaan;   and  such  knowledge  as  they  had  was  not 
acquired    by    personal    experience.      The    Egyptian    towns    of 
Pithom,  Eamasses  (Ex.  i.  11),  Socoth,  Etham   (Ex.  xiii.  20), 
Pi    Hachiroth,    Beelsephon    (Ex.    xiv.    9),    are    mentioned    as 
familiar,  but  it  is  expressly  stated  of  Hebron,  Sichem  and  Lus 
that  these  towns  are  situated  in  the  Land  of  Chanaan   (Gen. 
xxiii.  2;  xxxiii.  18;  xxxv.  6). 

(d)  The  whole  legislation  takes  shape  under  the  eye  of  the 
reader.     Hence  there  are  regulations  for  the  sojourn  in  the 
wilderness,  which  are  modified  or  extended  to  suit  later  cir- 
cumstances.    These  modifications  are  found  chiefly  in  Deuter- 
onomy, which,  according  to  tradition,  was  composed  immediately 
before  the  Israelites  entered  the  Holy  Land. 

(e)  The  language  of  the  Pentateuch  generally  resembles  that 
of  the  later  books,  but  it  contains  some  expressions  and  forms 
that  point  to  a  very  high  antiquity.     Thus  ion  is  always  used 
&&  =  commune,  and  so  is   iy:;    the  infinitive  ri  or  'i  is  used 
instead  of  rrt  with  adverbs  nS;    the  third  person  plural  is   p 
instead  of  *,  and  so  on. 

1  Cf.  Sayce,  "  Fresh  Light  from  the  Ancient  Monuments,"  p.  39,  etc. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    271 

The  work  must  have  been  rewritten  from  time  to  time,  for  not  only 
would  the  material  substance  of  the  book  wear  out  in  the  course  of  cen- 
turies, but  the  language,  being  a  living  language,  underwent  at  least  some 
changes,  and  the  old  Semitic  characters  were  replaced  by  the  square  script. 
It  was  unnecessary  for  many  copies  to  exist,  as  the  Pentateuch  was  not 
intended  to  be  a  reading  book  for  the  people.  The  chief  revision  of  it,  and 
also  of  the  other  books  written  before  the  Captivity,  probably  took  place 
in  the  time  of  Esdras  and  Nehemias.  There  is  therefore  some  truth  in 
the  statements  of  modern  critics,  but  they  go  astray  when  they  confuse 
rewriting  and  final  revision  with  the  first  compilation  of  the  law,  and 
deduce  their  daring  conclusions  from  this  confusion. 

(/)  If  Moses,  as  the  lawgiver  of  Israel,  wished  to  secure  per- 
manence for  his  ordinances,  he  was  almost  obliged  to  leave 
behind  him  a  written  code,  which  should  contain,  besides  the 
rules  themselves,  the  motives  for  their  enactment,  which  were 
contained  in  the  history  of  the  divine  revelations.  History  and 
Law  were  necessarily  connected  in  this  work.  Moses  felt,  too, 
the  necessity  of  leaving  a  written  record  behind  him  as  a 
testimony  against  Israel  (Deut.  xxxi.  26,  27). 

It  might  be  asked  whether  Moses,  having  been  born  and  bred  in  Egypt, 
knew  the  Hebrew  language.  But  Exodus  ii.  shows  plainly  that  the 
Israelites,  living  in  isolation  in  Gessen,1  had  retained  the  speech  of  their 
forefathers,  and  that  Moses,  in  spite  of  his  position  at  court,  felt  himself 
to  be  a  Hebrew  and  not  an  Egyptian. 

(g)  There  is  unity,  circumspection  and  system  in  the  com- 
position of  the  book.  It  is  dominated  by  the  thought  that  the 
Israelites  had  been  chosen  out  from  among  all  the  nations  of 
the  world  to  be  the  recipients  of  .God's  revelation,  and  to  main- 
tain the  right  worship  of  God,  and  also  that  at  some  period 
redemption  for  the  whole  world  should  proceed  from  them. 
For  this  reason  they  had  to  be  cut  off  from  the  Gentiles  and 
their  polytheistic  errors,  and  were  to  dwell  in  Chanaan  and 
faithfully  serve  their  God.  Only  what  can  stimulate  and  estab- 
lish this  thought  is  admitted  into  the  book.  All  else  is  either 
passed  over  in  silence,  or  mentioned  briefly  as  of  subordinate 
importance  and  then  set  aside. 

1  The  Vulgate  has  Gessen;   Hebrew  gosch&n,  Septuagint  gesem. 


272    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


(c)  Objections 

Objection  1.  "  It  has  been  proved  that  the  accounts  given  in  the  Penta- 
teuch of  the  Creation,  the  Fall  of  Man,  the  Deluge,  the  institution  of  the 
Sabbath,  the  doctrine  of  angels  and  devils,  might  all  have  been  read  as 
early  as  2000  B.  c.  in  the  cuneiform  records  of  Babylon.  They  were  bor- 
rowed from  there  and  admitted  to  the  Bible,  but  they  are  not  based  upon 
revelation,  and  Moses  was  not  their  author." 

Such  views  as  the  above  are  expressed  by  Delitzsch  and  Zimmern. 

Answer.  These  assertions  have  been  refuted  in  a  large  number  of 
works  by  Keil,  Nikel,  Doller,  Kaulen,  Hoberg,  Hommel,  Budde,  Konig, 
Jensen,  Barth,  Jeremias,  Knieschke  and  others,  but  especially  by  H.  Hil- 
precht  (see  infra,  p.  476),  who  has  for  a  long  time  been  working  at  the 
excavations  in  Babylon.  The  truth  is  that  the  Babylonians  derived  their 
information  from  the  same  source  as  the  Bible,  viz.  from  the  primitive 
tradition  of  the  human  race.  But  whereas  on  the  Euphrates  this  tradi- 
tion was  obscured  by  fantastic  and  polytheistic  additions  ( e.  g.  the  great 
flood  is  ascribed  to  a  whim  on  the  part  of  the  gods,  who  then  themselves 
became  anxious  and  crouched  down  like  dogs,  hurried  to  a  sacrifice  like 
flies,  etc.),  the  account  given  in  the  Bible  has  preserved  the  dignified 
purity  of  the  oldest  period.  The  resemblances  can  be  explained  by  com- 
munity of  origin,  the  great  divergencies  by  the  fall  of  Babylon  into 
idolatry.1 

Objection  2.  "  May  not  the  Law  of  the  Pentateuch  have  been  modeled 
on  that  of  the  Babylonian  King  Hammurabi,  who  as  early  as  2100  B.  c. 
had  compiled  a  collection  of  laws,  remarkable  for  acumen  and  wisdom, 
arranged  them  in  282  paragraphs,  and  recorded  them  on  stone  ?  " 

Answer.  Hammurabi  is  now  generally  identified  with  Amraphel,  men- 
tioned in  Genesis  xiv.  1,  who,  in  Abraham's  lifetime,  took  part  in  a 
campaign  against  Palestine  (supra,  p.  263).  His  code  of  laws  in  cunei- 
form writing  originated  in  Babylon,  but  was  brought  to  Susa,  the  capital 
of  the  old  kingdom  of  Elam.  In  1897-99  it  was  brought  to  light  by 
French  excavators.  The  Dominican  Father  Scheil,  noted  for  his  knowl- 
edge of  cuneiform  inscriptions,  published  it  in  French,  and  Hugo  Winkler 
translated  it  into  German  (Leipzig,  1902).  The  original  is  undoubtedly 
one  of  the  most  important  documents  in  the  history  of  the  ancient  world. 
With  extraordinary  wisdom  the  laws  regulate  the  public  and  private  life 
of  the  nation,  their  trade  and  traffic.  They  prove  that  Moses  might  well 
have  acted  as  a  legislator,  several  centuries  later.  A  comparison  of  Ham- 
murabi's laws  with  the  Mosaic  decrees  reveals  some  similarities,  but  there 


1  Cf.  especially  Father  Keil's  learned  work  on  Babel  und  Bibel,  Treves, 
1903;  also  Nikel,  Genesis  und  Keilschriftforschung,  February,  1903.  In 
a  review  of  the  latter  work  Hehn  remarks:  "The  individuality  of  the 
Bible  is  now  universally  recognized ;  that  the  explorations  at  Babylon  can 
endanger  the  interests  of  religion  is  already  out  of  the  question."  In  an- 
other work  Hehn  says  that  we  must  reject  the  idea  that  the  institution  of 
the  Sabbath  was  borrowed  from  Babylon,  as  in  Babylonia  nothing  analo- 
gous to  it  has  been  discovered. 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDEEED  SINGLY    273 

can  be  no  suggestion  that  the  latter  are  modeled  upon  or  borrowed  from 
the  former. 

Objection  3.  "  The  work  contains  many  parallel  passages,  which  would 
certainly  have  been  avoided,  had  it  been  written  by  one  author." 

Answer.  The  chief  passages  of  this  kind  are  the  apparently  double  ac- 
count of  the  Creation,  Genesis  i.  1  to  ii.  3  and  ii.  4,  etc. ;  and  also  Genesis 
xx.  and  xxvi.,  where  the  same  story  is  told  first  of  Abraham  and  then  of 
Isaac.  However,  the  second  account  of  the  Creation  would  be  unintelli- 
gible without  the  first ;  the  two  versions  supplement  each  other,  but  they 
have  different  objects.  The  first  is  intended  to  describe  the  creation  of 
the  world,  and  to  throw  light  on  religion  and  especially  on  the  observ- 
ance of  the  Sabbath;  the  second  is  concerned  with  the  history  of  the 
world,  and  contains  its  beginning.  With  regard  to  the  other  passages,  it 
is  quite  possible  for  the  son  to  have  an  experience  resembling  that  of  the 
father  under  similar  circumstances. 

Objection  4.  "  So  much  obscurity  and  confusion,  so  many  omissions, 
mutilations  and  repetitions  occur  in  the  Pentateuch,  especially  in  the 
three  middle  books,  that  we  are  forced  to  assume  several  persons  to  have 
been  engaged  in  its  compilation." 

Answer.  But  how  is  it  possible  to  judge  a  work  thousands  of  years  old 
by  our  standards,  and  to  require  of  the  author  strict  conformity  to  the 
laws  of  grammar  and  logic,  as  we  understand  them?  Can  the  chronologi- 
cal order,  that  is  maintained  throughout  the  whole  work,  be  mere  confu- 
sion? All  these  difficulties  can  be  removed  by  unprejudiced  exegesis.  Cf. 
supra,  p.  271  (g). 

Objection  5.  "  The  alternating  use  of  the  names  Elohim  and  Yahweh  in 
speaking  of  God  is  alone  enough  to  prove  that  the  Pentateuch  is  not  the 
work  of  one  author." 

Answer.  This  assertion  may  be  so  far  accurate  that  Moses  incorpor- 
ated into  his  work  other  documents  containing  the  name  Elohim,  whereas 
he  himself  preferred  to  use  the  name  Jehovah  (Yahweh),  which  was  espe- 
cially made  known  to  him  by  God  (Ex.  iii.  14).  The  meanings  of  the  two 
names  may,  however,  be  the  reason  why  a  single  author  should  use  some- 
times one  and  sometimes  the  other.  Elohim  is  an  abstract  noun  or  a 
pluralis  excellentice  of  the  singular  Eloah.  These  two  words  are  derived 
from  the  root  alah,  which  means  in  Arabic  when  intransitive,  "  to  be 
amazed,  to  fear,"  and  when  transitive,  "  to  honor,  to  worship,"  so  that  the 
name  Elohim  denotes  a  being  most  apt  to  inspire  fear  or  most  worthy 
of  reverence.  (Many  think  it  better  not  to  separate  the  name  from  El. 
El  is  derived  from  the  root  'ul3  to  surpass,  be  strong,  and  its  meaning 
would  be  "  Strong,  Mighty."  The  plural  Elohim  *  means  in  this  way  "  the 
Mightiest,"  "  the  conception  of  all  power." 

Yahweh,2  derived  from  the  verb  Hin  =  JTJT  means  "  the  Being."    It  is 

1  This  plural  is,  perhaps,  a  kind  of  substitute  for  a  superlative  that 
does  not  exist  in  Hebrew;  but  it  is  more  likely  that  it  refers  to  the 
three  Persons  in  God,  i.  e.  to  the  Trinity. 

3  This  seems  to  represent  the  correct  pronunciation.  The  Jews  al- 
ways read  Adonai  (Lord)  whenever  the  name  HIIT  occurs  in  the  sacred 
books,  and  the  Masoretes  gave  the  word  the  vowel  mark  for  Adonai,  be- 


274    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


the  future  kal  (in  the  same  way  as  ^pJP,  one  who  waylays,  or  prCT,  a 
mocker).  Such  forms  denote  a  permanent  condition.  Yahweh  is  there- 
fore He  "  who  is  and  who  was  and  who  is  to  come  "  (  Apoc.  i.  8  )  ,  He  who 
has  absolute  Being  from  Himself,  the  Eternal,  Unchangeable.  As  the 
form  suggests  also  the  causative  (Hiphil)  it  might  perhaps  mean  also 
"  He  who  communicates  His  Being."  *•  In  any  case  the  name  is  Hebrew, 
and  denotes  God  especially  as  the  Lord  of  Israel,  the  God  of  the  cove- 
nant, whilst  Elohim  stands  for  God  as  ruler  of  the  world  and  of  all 
nations.  The  Gentiles  also  used  the  name  Elohim  (Judges  i.  7;  Jon. 
i.  6).  When  reference  is  made  to  God  as  the  Creator  and  Lord  of  the 
world,  the  name  Elohim  is  generally  used;  but  the  name  Yahweh  occurs 
when  the  writer  is  alluding  to  the  God  who  has  revealed  Himself  to 
mankind  and  especially  to  Israel.  This  is  in  a  peculiar  manner  the 
Second  Person  of  the  Godhead,  who  was  in  time  to  assume  human  na- 
ture. The  Yahweh  or  Adonai  or  Kvpios  of  the  Pentateuch  and  of  all  the 
Old  Testament  corresponds,  therefore,  with  the  Ao7os  and  Kvpios  'lycrovs 
Xpiffros  of  the  New  Testament.2  Cf.  I  Cor.  x.  9;  Heb.  xii.  2;  Jude  5; 
Apoc.  i.  8. 


cause  it  must  not  be  spoken  in  vain,  in  violation  of  the  Second  Com- 
mandment. Thus  arose  the  form  Jehovah,  which  is  certainly  wrong. 
The  Septuagint  did  not  venture  upon  any  translation;  in  their  time 
people  must  already  have  read  Adonai,  because  they  always  wrote  Kvpios 
in  its  place  (Itala  and  Vulgate,  Dominus).  That  Yahweh  is  the  correct 
pronunciation  is  apparent  from  Theodoretus  (Qucest.  ad  Exod.,  15)  : 
Ka\ovffi  5e  avrb  ^afiapeirai  I  ABE. 

1  Hommel  derives  the  name  from  the  old  Arabic  verb  hawaja   (Heb. 
hajah)    and  explains  it  as  meaning  "  He  exists,  comes  into  existence, 
reveals   Himself."     Cornill   refers  to  the  Arabic  hawd  =  to  fall,   and 
thinks  that  the  meaning  is  "  He  who  makes  to  fall,"  i.  e.  the  God  of 
storms,  who  overthrows  His  enemies  with  His  thunderbolt.     Delitzsch 
considers  El  =  goal   (as  in  Heb.  el=to)i  but  this  interpretation  is  too 
philosophical  to  be  in  keeping  with  early  Semitic  ideas.    Delitzsch  states 
that  the  name  Yahweh  was  used  in  Babylon  at  the  time  of  Hammurabi 
( 2200  B.  c. ) ,  but  this  is  generally  pronounced  to  be  a  mistake  on  his 
part.    Even  if  he  were  correct,  it  would  not  destroy  the  value  of  Exo- 
dus iii.     The  true  God  might  well  communicate  to  Moses  the  sense  in 
which  He  claimed  this  name  for  Himself. 

2  Too  little  attention  is  paid,  even  by  Catholics,  to  the  fact  that  God 
Himself  is  the  originator  of  Holy  Scripture,  and  chose  this  name  there- 
fore.   We  consider  the  human  element  in  it  too  much,  and  we  keep  this 
in  the  foreground  when  we  argue  from  these  names  that  there  must 
have  been  various  authors.     It  is  true  that  critics  do  not  lay  so  much 
stress  upon  these  names  as  they  used  to  do,  but,  ever  since  the  time  of 
Astruc    the   whole   criticism   of    the   Pentateuch   has    depended   upon 
them. 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    275 


SECOND    SECTION 

THE    PERIOD    FROM   THE    ENTRANCE    OF    THE    ISRAELITES 
INTO   CHANAAN  TO  THE   DIVISION  OF  THE  KINGDOM 

3.   SURVEY 

The  second  period  of  the  history  of  Israel  may  be  divided  into 
three  parts:  (1)  The  conquest  of  the  Promised  Land  soon  after 
the  death  of  Moses  and  Aaron.  (2)  The  time  of  the  Judges, 
divinely  inspired  men  who  ruled  the  people.  (3)  The  estab- 
lishment of  a  monarchy  by  Samuel,  the  last  of  the  Judges,  and 
the  reigns  of  the  first  three  kings. 

The  following  are  the  sacred  books  belonging  to  this  period: 

(a)  Historical   books:   Josue,   Judges,   Ruth,   two   books   of 
Samuel  (in  the  Vulgate,  I  and  II  Books  of  Kings). 

(b)  Poetical  books:  Psalms,  Job,  Canticle  of  Canticles. 

(c)  Didactic  books:  Proverbs  of  Solomon  and  Ecclesiastes,  or 
the  Preacher. 

HISTORICAL   BOOKS 
4.    JOSUE 

(24  chapters) 

1.  Contents.  Chapters  1-12,  Conquest  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  Holy  Land.  13-19,  Distribution  of  the  country.  20-22, 
Cities  of  Refuge  and  Cities  for  the  Levites.  23  and  24,  End 
of  Josue's  life,  his  last  counsels  and  death. 

1.  Josue  assumes  the  government  of  the  nation,  and  is  ordered  by 
God  to  cross  the  Jordan  and  conquer  the  country.  2.  Israelite  spies 
fall  into  danger  at  Jericho,  but  are  saved  by  a  woman  named  Rahab. 
3,  4.  The  Israelites  cross  the  Jordan  dry-shod.  5.  Revival  of  circum- 
cision. 6.  Fall  of  Jericho,  and  later,  7,  of  Ai.  8.  Blessing  and  curse  at 
Sichem,  according  to  Deuteronomy  xxvii.  2,  etc.  9.  The  Chanaanite 
kings  prepare  for  resistance.  10.  The  south  of  the  country  passes  into 
the  possession  of  the  Israelites  through  the  wonderful  intervention  of 
God.1  11.  After  a  battle  near  Lake  Merom,  the  northern  part  also  is 

1  Much  has  been  said  and  written  about  the  standing  still  of  the 
sun  (x.  13).  It  would  be  simpler  if  we  might  explain  the  matter  natu- 
rally, and  say:  "It  remained  light  so  unusually  long,  that  it  seemed  as 


276    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

subdued.  12.  Survey  of  the  conquered  lands.  13-19.  The  tribes  of 
Ruben,  Gad  and  half  of  Manasses,  having  already  made  settlements  east 
of  the  Jordan,  retire  thither,  after  having  assisted  their  brethren  to 
conquer  Chanaan.  The  other  tribes  receive  land  in  the  west  according 
to  their  numbers.  The  tribe  of  Levi  receives  no  continuous  territory. 
The  Tabernacle  is  set  up  in  Silo.  20-22.  The  cities  of  refuge  are  ap- 
pointed and  forty-eight  districts  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  as  had 
been  commanded  (Num.  xxxv.).  23,  24.  The  elders  gather  round  Josue, 
who  feels  his  death  approaching;  he  urges  them  to  be  faithful  to  the 
law,  makes  them  renew  the  Covenant  with  God,  and  dies  at  the  age  of 
one  hundred  and  ten. 

Critics  who  do  not  belong  to  the  Catholic  Church  now  reckon  the  Book 
of  Josue  as  belonging  to  the  Pentateuch,  and  thus  a  Hexateuch  is  formed, 
written  by  various  authors,  and  containing  the  early  history  of  Israel.  In 
the  Book  of  Josue  J,  E  and  P  are  said  to  be  clearly  distinguishable 
as  sources  of  information.  The  work  displays,  however,  a  uniform 
independent  character;  it  contains  an  account  of  the  manner  in  which 
the  divine  command  (i.  2,  etc.)  to  take  possession  of  the  Holy  Land 
was  carried  into  effect,  and  at  the  same  time  it  shows  God's  fidelity 
in  fulfilling  His  promises  (xxi.  41).  This  appears  also  in  passages 
such  as  xiii.  9,  etc.,  and  xx.  8,  which  would  seem  unnecessary  repetitions 
of  Numbers  xxxii.  33,  etc.,  and  Deuteronomy  iv.  41-43,  if  this  book  really 
belonged  to  the  Pentateuch.  The  Jewish  canon  never  classed  Josue  with 
the  Pentateuch,  but  invariably  with  the  Prophets. 

2.  Date  and  Author.  As  the  book  bears  the  name  of  Josue, 
he  is  generally  regarded  as  its  author;  but  there  are  several 
passages  indicating  that  it  is  of  later  date.  They  are  iv.  9, 
"  Josue  put  other  twelve  stones  in  the  midst  of  the  channel 
of  the  Jordan,  .  .  .  and  they  are  there  until  this  present  day." 
x.  14,  "  There  was  not  before  nor  after  so  long  a  day."  xix.  47, 
"  The  children  of  Dan  went  up  and  fought  against  Lesem,  and 
took  it  ...  and  dwelt  in  it,  calling  the  name  of  it  Lesser  Dan." 

We  must,  however,  not  assume  that  the  book  was  written  as 
late  as  the  time  of  the  kings.  In  xv.  63  the  Jebusites  are  men- 
tioned as  inhabiting  Jerusalem,  whilst  it  is  clear  from  II  Kings 
v.  5-9,  that  David  expelled  them,  so  the  book  must  have  ex- 
isted before  David's  reign;  in  fact,  it  must  have  been. written 

if  the  sun  were  standing  still."  The  story,  however,  clearly  implies  that 
a  miracle  took  place.  How  this  can  be  reconciled  with  the  laws  govern- 
ing the  universe  is  as  far  beyond  the  powers  of  mortals  to  decide  as  it 
is  to  ascertain  how  water  could  be  turned  into  wine,  or  how  wine  can 
become  the  Blood  of  Christ.  In  the  Book  of  Job  (xxxviii.-xli.)  God 
teaches  man  not  to  judge  of  what  is  too  high  for  him,  as  even  the  natu- 
ral world  contains  so  many  mysteries  that  he  cannot  fathom. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    277 

much  earlier,  as  in  xi.  8  and  xix.  28,  Sidon  is  called  the  chief 
city  of  Phoenicia,  and  in  David's  time  Tyre  had  long  been  the 
capital.1  We  may  therefore  believe  that  Josue  wrote  the  book, 
but  some  later  hand  added  numerous  remarks  to  it.  Such  is 
the  tradition  of  the  Jews  and  of  the  Western  Church.  Or  we 
may  believe  the  author  to  have  lived  not  long  after  Josue,  and 
to  have  made  use  of  records  written  by  Josue.  Those  who  favor 
the  latter  theory  think  that  it  may  have  been  compiled  by 
Phinees,  son  of  Eleazar  the  high  priest,  and  grandson  of  Aaron, 
who  is  mentioned  in  xxii.  13,  xxiv.  33.  In  this  case  the  work 
would  be  called  the  Book  of  Josue,  not  because  Josue  was  its 
author,  but  because  it  contains  the  history  of  Josue  and  his 
deeds. 

5.   THE  BOOK  OF  JUDGES 

(21  chapters) 

1.  Contents.  Israel  is  defended  by  God  against  the  Gentiles 
in  the  Promised  Land. 

(a)  Introduction.  Chapters  1-3.  Some  of  the  Chanaanites  are  spared 
and  occupy  the  country  with  the  Israelites.  The  unfortunate  result  of 
this  arrangement  is  that  they  become  dependent  upon  the  Gentiles,  and 
idolatry  spreads  among  them  also. 

(6)  Chief  portion  of  the  book.  Chapters  3-16.  This  clearly  reveals 
the  purpose  with  which  it  was  written,  namely  to  show  that  the  fortunes 
of  the  Israelites  varied  in  accordance  with  their  obedience  or  disobedi- 
ence to  the  law.  As  often  as  they  rebelled  against  it,  they  fell  into 
slavery,  but  as  soon  as  they  returned  to  their  allegiance  they  were  res- 
cued by  the  judges.  Some  of  these  judges  are  mentioned  very  briefly; 
a  full  account  is  given  of  others.  The  most  conspicuous  are  Barak,  with 
the  prophetess  Debora;  Gedeon,  whose  son  Abimelech  aimed  at  su- 
premacy and  was  therefore  put  to  death;  Jephte  and  Samson.  The  last 
distinguished  himself  in  the  war  against  the.  Philistines,  new  enemies 
who  had  come  from  Egypt  (supra,  p.  20). 

The  name  Judges  (shophetim,  the  same  word  as  suffetes,  the  chief 
magistrates  in  Carthage)  does  not  only  imply  that  these  men  judged  the 
people  according  to  the  Mosaic  law  (I  Kings  vii.  15,  etc.),  but  also  that 
they  had  power  of  government,  and  led  the  nation  in  war.  They  pro- 
cured justice  for  the  individual  Israelite  against  the  malice  of  his 
own  countrymen,  and  for  the  whole  nation  against  the  Gentiles.  They 


1  According  to  the  Kirchenlexikon,  1st  ed.,  VIII,  430,  it  had  been 
the  capital  since  1209  B.  c. 


278    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

won  their  position  not  by  inheritance  or  election,  but  by  their  great 
achievements. 

The  following  judges  are  mentioned  by  name:  (1)  Othoniel  (of  the 
tribe  of  Juda),  (2)  Aod  (Benjamin),  (3)  Samgar  (?),  (4)  Jahel  (?), 
(5)  Debora  (Ephraim),  (6)  Barak  (Nephtali),  (7)  Gedeon  (Manasses), 
(8)  Thola  (Issachar),  (9)  Jair  (Gad),  (10)  Jephte  (Gad),  (11) 
Abesan  (Juda  or  Zabulon),  (12)  Ahialon  (Zabulon),  (13)  Abdon 
(Ephraim),  (14)  Samson  (Dan).  The  judges  (15)  Heli  and  (16) 
Samuel  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  are  not  mentioned  before  the  Book  of  Samuel 
(I  Kings). 

(c)  Appendix.  Chapters  17  and  18.  Prohibition  of  worship  on 
Mount  Ephraim  and  its  transference  by  the  tribe  of  Dan  to  Lais  in  the 
north  of  the  country  (see  p.  103).  19-21.  War  of  the  eleven  tribes 
against  Benjamin,  to  punish  an  offense  that  had  been  committed. 

2.  The  records  of  time  in  this  book  must  not  simply  be  added 
up,  but  we  must  assume  that  some  of  the  periods  were  con- 
current.   According  to  III  Kings  vi.  1,  only  480  years  elapsed 
from  the  time  when  the  Israelites  left  Egypt  to  the  building  of 
Solomon's  Temple,  but  the  periods  mentioned  in  Judges  alone 
would  amount  to  almost  400  years,  and  we  have  still  to  take 
into  account  the  40  years'  sojourn  in  the  Wilderness,  40  years 
of  Saul's  reign,  40  years  of  David's  reign  and  4  years  of  Solo- 
mon's.   It  seems,  therefore,  that  the  time  of  the  Judges  cannot 
have  lasted  more  than  about  350  years,  unless  perhaps  there 
is  some  flaw  in  the  text  regarding  the  numbers. 

3.  Date  and  Author.    The  book  was  written  in  the  time  of 
the  kings,  as  in  xvii.  6,  xviii.  1  and  31,  xxi.  24  we  read  that 
there  was  no  king  in  Israel  in  those  days.     The  author  ascribes 
many  evils  to  the  absence  of  a  regular  government;   and  as  he 
seems  to  have  seen  no  rulers  of  the  type  of  Eoboam  and  Jero- 
boam, he  must  have  lived  before  the  division  of  the  kingdom. 
We  may  go  back  beyond  the  reigns  of  Solomon  and  David  to 
that  of  Saul,  because  the  Jebusites  are  mentioned   (i.  21;  cf. 
xix.   12)    as  still  inhabiting  Jerusalem.     The  accounts  of  the 
various  events  are  the  work  not  of  one,  but  of  several  authors. 
This  is  proved  by  the  variety  in  the  language. 

Debora's  song  (chap,  v.)  shows  archaisms;  the  history  of  Gedeon  has 
always  Iff  instead  of  "lt?K  for  the  relative,  and  the  story  of  Samson  is 
distinguished  by  the  frequent  recurrence  of  "  The  spirit  of  the  Lord  came 
upon  him." 


THE  SACEED  BOOKS  CONSIDEEED  SINGLY    279 

Whoever  collected  these  stories  probably  himself  added  the  in- 
troduction and  the  appendix.  In  the  Talmud  Samuel  is  named 
as  the  author,  and  his  last  speech  (I  Kings  xii.  7,  etc.)  shows 
considerable  resemblance  to  the  line  of  thought  followed  in  the 
Book  of  Judges. 

4.  Objection.  The  expression  geloth  Jiaarez  =  taking  away 
of  the  land  (xviii.  30)  seems  to  refer  to  a  much  later  date  than 
that  of  Samuel,  for  it  was  not  until  722  that  the  land  of  the 
northern  tribes  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Assyrians.  We 
probably  ought  to  read  geloth  haaron  —  taking  away  of  the  Ark 
of  the  Covenant.  This  took  place  in  Samuel's  time,  for  the 
Philistines  seized  the  Ark. 


6.    KUTH1 
(4  chapters) 

1.  Contents.    This  little  book  tells  in  four  chapters  how  a  poor 
widow  named  Euth,  from  the  heathen  land  of  Moab,  became  the 
wife  of  Boaz  or  Boas,  a  wealthy  man  in  Bethlehem.    From  their 
marriage  Obed  was  born,  and  his  son  was  Jesse  (Isai),  David's 
father.     Thus  Boaz   and   Euth  were  the   king's   great-grand- 
parents. 

2.  Motive.    The  events  related  are  purely  a  matter  of  family 
history,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  book  originated  in 
their  connection  with  King  David,  and  therefore  has  some  higher 
significance.     One  of  its  objects  seems  to  be  to  draw  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Israelites  to  the  fact  that  God  did  not  absolutely 
reject  the  Gentiles,  as  a  Gentile  woman  was  admitted  to  the 
line  of  David,  that  inherited  a  special  blessing,  and  she  thus 
became  the  ancestress  of  the  future  Messias. 

The  readiness  with  which  Orpha  and  especially  Ruth  followed  their 
mother-in-law  Noemi  from  their  heathen  home  to  the  land  of  Juda  must 
have  been  due  to  the  virtuous  life  of  Noemi  and  her  family,  which  con- 
trasted with  the  barbarous  customs  of  the  Gentiles.  The  reason  was  that 


1  fill  perhaps  =  rujn,  i.  e.  Friend.  In  ancient  times  this  book  waa 
often  reckoned  as  part  of  Judges.  The  first  words  suggest  that  it  waa 
an  appendix  to  it :  "  In  the  days  of  one  of  the  judges,  when  the  judges 
ruled."  The  Jewish  canon  now  places  Ruth  among  the  Ketubim. 


280    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

they  worshiped  the  true  God.  When  Ruth  declared  "  thy  God  shall  be 
my  God,"  she  acknowledged  the  excellence  of  the  Israelite  religion,  and 
was  determined  to  renounce  heathenism.  Thus  to  some  extent  she  de- 
served the  honor  of  being  the  ancestress  of  David,  and  through  him  of  the 
Messias. 

3.  Date.    Ruth  lived  about  one  hundred  years  before  David, 
and  the  book  was  written  either  during  his  reign  or  not  long 
after.    His  pedigree  at  the  end  of  the  book  points  to  its  having 
been  composed  after  his  death,  and  the  words  in  iv.  7,  referring 
to  the  custom  of  taking  off  a  shoe  in  token  of  renouncing  a 
claim,  with  the  addition:  "That  was  a  custom  of  ages  ago  in 
Israel/'  indicate  a  later  origin. 

4.  Author.    The  writer  of  the  book  is  unknown.    The  Talmud 
(baba  bathra  f.  14  &.)  ascribes  it  to  Samuel,  but  this  is  probably 
wrong.     The  differences  in  the  language  show  that  the, author 
cannot  be  identified  with  that  of  the  Book  of  Judges,  nor  with 
the  writer  of  the  Books  of  Samuel.1 


7.   THE  BOOKS  OF  SAMUEL 

In  the  Vulgate:  First  and  Second  Books  of  Kings 
(31  and  24  chapters) 

1.  Contents.  These  books  contain  the  history  of  the  intro- 
duction of  monarchy  into  Israel,  and  of  the  first  two  kings;  the 
first  book  carries  the  history  to  the  death  of  Saul  and  the  second 
to  the  end  of  David's  reign.  The  first  twelve  chapters  give  the 
story  of  Heli,  judge  and  high  priest,  and  of  Samuel. 

I  Samuel.  1.  Elkana,  Samuel's  father,  and  his  mother,  Anna.  Samuel 
is  dedicated  to  God  and  serves  in  the  Tabernacle  at  Silo.  2,  3.  Heli,  the 
high  priest,  as  a  father  is  weak  in  his  dealings  with  Ophni  and  Phinees, 
his  degenerate  sons ;  he  is  threatened  with  God's  vengeance.  4.  War  with 
the  Philistines ;  removal  of  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant.  Death  of  Heli  and 
his  sons.  5,  6.  The  Philistines  suffer  misfortunes  on  account  of  the  Ark, 
so  they  restore  it,  but  remain  masters  of  the  country.  7.  Samuel  con- 
quers the  Philistines  and  practically  becomes  supreme.  8,  9.  The  people 
demand  a  king;  Samuel  yields  and  anoints  Saul.  10-12.  Saul  is  brave, 
wins  respect,  and  Samuel  retires.  13.  Renewal  of  war  with  the  Philia- 

1  So  Kaulen.  Weiss  on  the  other  hand  believes,  with  Haneberg,  that 
Samuel  wrote  the  Book  of  Ruth  at  Najoth  at  the  same  time  as  the 
fifty-ninth  Psalm. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY 

tines.  14-16.  Saul  repeatedly  disobeys  God,  and  therefore  Samuel  is 
forced  to  anoint  David,  though  very  young,  to  be  the  future  king.  17. 
David  conquers  Goliath;  his  friendship  with  Jonathan,  one  of  Saul's 
sons,  and  his  marriage  with  Saul's  daughter  Michol.  18-31.  Saul's  jeal- 
ousy and  hatred  of  David,  whom  he  seeks  to  kill.  David  has  to  lead  a 
life  of  adventure.  Saul  and  Jonathan  die  in  battle  against  the  Philistines. 
//  Samuel.  1-3.  David  is  recognized  by  the  tribe  of  Juda  as  king, 
and  takes  up  his  abode  at  Hebron.  Elsewhere  Saul's  son  Isboseth  is  re- 
garded as  king.  4.  Isboseth  is  murdered,  and  all  the  tribes  accept  David 
as  their  ruler.  5,  6.  He  conquers  the  stronghold  of  Sion  and  makes 
Jerusalem  his  residence.  He  sets  up  the  Tabernacle  on  Sion.  7.  David 
is  not  allowed  to  build  a  temple  for  the  Lord,  but  receives  the  promise 
that  his  kingdom  shall  last  forever.  8,  9.  David  sins  grievously  through 
lust  ;  he  does  penance.  10-19.  His  sons  Ammon  and  Absalom  cause  him 
much  trouble.1  20-23.  Other  difficulties  are  overcome.  David's  gratitude 
to  God.  24.  His  enumeration  of  the  people  through  pride,  and  his 
punishment  for  it.2 

2.  Name.    The  books  bear  the  name  of  Samuel  only  because 
he  is  one  of  the  chief  characters  in  the  history,  and,  especially 
in  the  first  book,  he  is  the  chief  actor.     He  cannot  have  been 
the  author,  as  many  events  are  recorded  that  occurred  long  after 
his  death.    The  two  books  were  originally  united,  but  they  were 
divided  by  the  Greek  translators,  and  hence  appear  as  two  in  the 
Itala  and  the  Vulgate.    In  the  Hebrew  Bible  the  division  was  not 
made  until  1518.    The  Vulgate,  like  the  Septuagint,  calls  them 
the  First  and  Second  books  of  Kings,  and  consequently  the  other 
books  of  Kings,  that  are  of  much  later  origin,  are  numbered 
Third  and  Fourth  (see  p.  334). 

3.  Date.     The  work  was  written  after  the  division  of  the 
kingdom,  but  before  the  destruction  of  the  northern  part  ;   i.  e. 
between  932  and  722.     The  first  statement  depends  upon  the 
words  in  I  Samuel  xxvii.  6  :  "  Siceleg  belongeth  to  the  kings  of 
Juda  unto  this  day,"  the  second  upon  the  fact  that  there  is  no 


1  In  chapter  xii.  31  the  Hebrew  reading  should  perhaps  be 

if  we  may  accept  it,  it  alters  the  story  of  David's  remarkable  cruety 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Rabbath  Ammon,  for  then  we  read  not  of  fearful 
forms  of  death,  but  of  condemnation  to  compulsory  service.  In  the 
parallel  passage,  I  Chronicles  xx.  3,  the  reading  should  be  OBH  and  not 
1EH,  as  Kautzsch  and  others  have  it. 

2  Peters  is  inclined  to  prefer  the  Septuagint  text  to  the  Masoretic, 
especially  from  I  Samuel  xvi.  1  to  xix.    18.    The  Masoretic  text  is  longer, 
and  seems  to  contain  interpolations,  and  it  is  in  fact  much  later  than 
that  used  by  the  Septuagint. 


282    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

allusion  at  all  in  the  book  to  the  destruction  of  the  northern 
kingdom. 

4.  Author.      The    writer    is    unknown.      Old   commentators 
ascribed  the  first  twenty-four  chapters  to  Samuel  and  the  rest 
to  the  prophets  Gad  and  Nathan.    The  character  of  the  work  is 
uniform  and  it  shows  design  in  its  composition,  so  we  may  re- 
gard it  as  certain  that  the  author,  who  was  probably  a  prophet 
living  under  the  kings,  made  use  of  the  records  left  by  these 
three  men,  and  skillfully  adapted  them  to  suit  this  work. 

5.  His  purpose  was  to  show  that  both  the  people  of  Israel  and 
their  kings  could  find  happiness  only  in  obedience  to  God. 


POETICAL   BOOKS 
8.    OLD  TESTAMENT  POETRY  IN  GENERAL1 

1.  Varieties  of  Poetry.     In  the  sacred  literature  of  Israel 
lyric  and  didactic  poetry  attained  a  high  degree  of  development. 
The  one  often  passes  into  the  other;    many  of  the  Psalms  are 
didactic  rather  than  lyric,  whilst  the  didactic  book  of  Job  con- 
tains several  lyric  passages. 

Epic  and  dramatic  poetry  do  not  occur.  Epos  and  Drama 
would  be  out  of  place  in  the  sacred  books,  as  they  generally  pre- 
suppose works  of  the  imagination,  which  would  be  inconsistent 
with  the  divine  revelation  that  communicates  only  truth.  The 
Hebrews  may  have  possessed  some  profane  poetry,  such  as 
Lamech's  defiant  war  song  (Gen.  iv.  23),  but  religious  poetry 
held  the  place  of  honor  among  God's  people,  as  all  poetry  in 
general  originated  in  worship. 

2.  Rhythm.    Hebrew  poems  possess  a  definite  rhythm,  i.  e.  a 
movement   regulated  in  accordance  with  certain  laws,  and  a 
systematic  structure  of  the  parts  of  the  verse.    The  parallelism 
in  the  clauses  is  peculiar  to  Hebrew  poets  and  is  very  distinctive. 
The  poet  is  not  satisfied  with  expressing  a  thought  in  one  clause, 

1  Kautzsch,  Poesie  des  A.  T.,  Tub.,  1902,  is  of  opinion  that  the  poetical 
books  are  of  late  origin,  mostly  after  the  Captivity,  but  tradition  as- 
signs them  to  a  much  earlier  period. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    283 

but  he  expresses  it  again  in  parallel  clauses,  resembling  one 
another  in  meaning  and  form,  and  these  constitute  the  verse. 
For  instance : 

My  son,  hear  the  instruction  of  thy  father, 
And  forsake  not  the  law  of  thy  mother. 

Prov.  i.  8. 
or, 

Then  was  our  mouth  filled  with  gladness, 
And  our  tongue  with  joy.  Psalm  cxxv.  2. 

or, 

[The  wicked]  shall  be  as  chaff  before  the  face 
of  the  wind,  and  as  ashes  which  the  whirl- 
wind scattereth.  job.  xxi.  jg. 

In  the  Psalms  of  the  Roman  Breviary  the  asterisk,  marking  the 
pause  to  be  made  in  choir,  often  indicates  this  parallelism,  which 
is,  however,  not  always  complete,  one  of  the  clauses  being  only 
imperfectly  developed.  Sometimes  the  second  clause  does  not 
contain  a  repetition  so  much  as  a  contrast  or  a  new  idea.  These 
three  kinds  of  parallelism  all  conduce  to  make  the  meaning 
clear. 

The  Hebrew  poets  were  not  acquainted  with  the  use  of  rhyme,  and, 
though  rhymed  verses  occur,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  rhyme  is 
intentional  or  accidental.  It  is  uncertain  whether  real  meters  were  in 
use.  Recent  scholars  maintain  that  a  trochaic  and  an  iambic  meter  can 
be  traced  in  at  least  some  poems;  that  there  is,  for  instance,  a  12- 
syllabled  trochaic  meter  in  the  third  Lamentation  of  Jeremias,  and  a 
7-syllabled  iambic  in  the  lllth  and  112th  Psalms.  This  theory  has  not 
yet  been  generally  accepted.  Its  acceptance  would  involve  great  vio- 
lence being  done  to  the  Masoretic  text,  as  the  vowels  would  mostly  have 
to  be  altered.  More  attractive  is  a  theory  put  forward  by  J.  K.  Zenner, 
S.J.,  who  thinks  that  the  Psalms  and  other  songs  in  the  Old  Testament 
(e.g.  Ecclesiasticus  xxiv.,  Baruch  iii.  9,  etc.)  were  originally  proces- 
sional songs,  sung  by  a  choir  with  instrumental  accompaniment  and 
stately  gestures,  so  that  the  three  arts  of  poetry,  music  and  dancing  were 
united.  These  songs  can  be  divided  into  strophe,  antistrophe  and  transi- 
tion. Where  a  strophe  ends,  there  stands  in  seventy-one  places  in  the 
Book  of  Psalms  the  hitherto  inexplicable  word  Sela  (see  p.  286),  which 
certainly  is  one  of  the  old  technical  terms  in  use  among  the  Levites, 
and  indicates  a  change.  Thus  Psalm  vii.  falls  into  the  following  parts: 
verses  1-3,  strophe;  4-6,  antistrophe;  7-10,  transition;  11-14,  second 
strophe;  15-18,  second  antistrophe.  Psalm  xc:  verses  1-3,  strophe;  4-6, 
antistrophe;  7-10,  transition;  11-13  second  strophe;  14-16,  second 
antistrophe.  This  arrangement  explains  also  the  alternation  of  speakers 
in  this  psalm.  Also  among  the  heathen  nations  of  antiquity  it  was 


284:    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

usual  to  go  round  the  altar,  on  which  the  sacrifices  were  burnt,  in  stately 
processions  or  dances  in  honor  of  the  deity. 

3.  Versification.  The  ordinary  verses  in  Hebrew  poetry  con- 
sist of  two  lines,  but  tristichs  and  tetrastichs  occur,  and  occa- 
sionally verses  with  five  or  six  lines.  Some  poems  are  arranged 
according  to  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  probably  in  order  to 
be  more  easily  committed  to  memory.  Such,  for  instance,  are 
the  Lamentations,  Psalm  cxviii.  and  Proverbs  yxxi, 

9.   THE  PSALTER 

1.  Name.    The  canon  of  the  Old  Testament  contains  a  col- 
lection of  one  hundred  and  fifty  songs,  some  long  and  some  short, 
which  compose  the  Book  of  Psalms  (Vulg.  :  Psalmorum  liber) 
or  Psalter  (C.  Trid.  :  Psalterium)  .    The  word  "  psalm  "  (^aX/Ao? 
taken   from   the    Septuagint)    means   primarily   playing   on   a 
stringed  instrument,1   and  then  a  song  sung  to   such  music. 
Psalter  =  stringed  instrument,  and  then,  by  transference,  a  col- 
lection of  songs.     In  Hebrew  the  psalms  are  called  tehillim  or 
iillim,  songs  of  praise.2 

2.  Date  of  Origin  and  Authors.      The  Psalms  were  not  com- 
posed all  at  one  time,  nor  are  they  the  work  of  one  man,  but 
they  were  written  by  various  divinely  inspired  singers  and  subse- 
quently collected.     Most  of  them  have  headings  containing  the 
author's  name,  and  often  also  the  time  and  occasion  of  compo- 
sition, as  well  as  directions  for  singing  them.     These  headings 
are  the  work  of  the  collectors,  not  of  the  composers  of  the 
Psalms,  and  the  information  that  they  contain  is  derived  from 
Jewish  tradition.3    In  these  headings  the  following  authors  are 
mentioned  by  name: 

1  According  to  Suidas  \f/6.\\eiv  is  to  strike  the  strings  of  an  instru- 
ment with  the  finger-tips,  hence  if/a\(Ji6s  is  playing  in  this  manner. 


from  n,  to  praise,  extol. 
8  Modern  critics  attach  a  very  slight  importance  to  these  headings, 
and  aim  at  ascertaining  the  date  and  origin  of  the  Psalms  from  internal 
evidence  alone.  So  Cornill  and  Reuss.  Legarde  thought  that  these 
headings  designated  not  the  composer,  but  the  party  of  musicians  in  the 
Temple,  to  whom  particular  psalms  were  assigned  for  performance;  so 
that  one  song  was  described  as  assigned  to  Davida  another  to  Solomon, 
others  to  Asaph,  Core,  etc.,  but  tradition  is  against  this  theory. 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    285 

1.  Moses.     The  eighty-ninth    (Heb.  ninetieth)    psalm  is  ascribed  to 
him. 

2.  David.     The  whole  Book  of  Psalms  is  often  called  by  his  name, 
and  correctly  in  as  far  as  he  began  to  make  the  collection;    he  com- 
posed many  psalms  himself  and  the  rest  breathe  his  spirit.    The  Hebrew 
text  assigns  seventy-three  psalms  to  him,  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate 
add  twelve  others,  so  that  in  all  eighty-five  are  ascribed  to  him,  or, 
with  Psalm  Ixxi.,  eighty-six. 

3.  Solomon  is  mentioned  as  having  composed  two  psalms,  Ixxi.  and 
cxxvi.    The  heading  of  the  former  is  in  Hebrew,  "  To  Solomon  "  lesche- 
lomo,  and  the  Seventy  render  this  els   SaXw^c&v  =  on  Solomon.     Most 
writers,  therefore,  assume  that  it  was  not  composed  by  Solomon,  but  by 
David,  according  to  verse  20 :  "  The  praises  of  David,  the  son  of  Jesse, 
are  ended."    Solomon  is  extolled  as  a  type  of  the  Messias. 

4.  Asaph,  son  of  Barachias,  a  Levite  and  one  of  David's  musicians, 
is  stated  in  the  headings  to  have  written  twelve  psalms  (xlix.  and  Ixxii. 
to  Ixxxii. ) . 

5.  Eleven  of  the  finest  psalms,  remarkable  for  their  lyric  force  (xli., 
xliii.-xlviii.,  Ixxxiii.,  Ixxxiv.,  Ixxxvi.  and  Ixxxvii.),  are  ascribed  to  the 
Corahites,  the  family  of  Core  the  Levite.    Psalm  Ixxxvii.  is  particularly 
ascribed  to  a  Corahite  named  Eman,  a  descendant  of  Esdras. 

6.  Psalm  Ixxxviii.  was  composed  by  Ethan,  another  descendant  of 
Esdras,  and  probably  also  a  Corahite. 

The  remaining  thirty-eight  psalms  bear  no  indication  of  their 
origin,  and  their  authors  are  unknown.  They  are  called  "  owner- 
less" (aSeWorot),  and  in  the  Talmud  "orphaned." 

Modern  critics,  such  as  Hitzig,  Olshausen,  Eeuss  and  others, 
regard  some  psalms  as  Machabean,  i.  e.  they  believe  them  not 
to  have  been  composed  until  the  time  of  the  Machabees,  viz.,  in 
the  second  century  before  Christ.  To  this  class  belong  Psalms 
Ixxiii.,  Ixxviii.  and  cxviii.  Not  only  the  headings,  but  also  the 
tradition  of  the  Jews  refer  them  to  an  earlier  period,  and,  more- 
over, in  the  time  of  the  Machabees  the  Book  of  Psalms  had 
already  been  translated  into  Greek. 

It  is  not  absolutely  impossible  that  some  of  the  psalms  may  have  been 
composed  in  the  time  of  the  Machabees,  for  educated  people  still  used 
Hebrew,  and  the  Seventy  did  not  complete  their  work  much  before 
130  B.  c.  The  newly  discovered  remains  of  the  Hebrew  text  of  Ecclesias- 
ticus  prove,  however,  that  the  Psalter  existed  in  its  present  size  at  the 
time  when  Ecclesiasticus  was  written.  Cf.  infra,  p.  353. 

3.  Purpose.  As  the  headings  and  the  final  verses  of  many 
psalms  show,  the  Psalter  was  a  book  containing  the  songs  sung 


286    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

by  the  Levites  at  the  public  worship  of  the  Israelites.  Now  the 
Psalms  have  become  forms  of  prayer  in  use  in  the  Church,  and 
especially  appointed  for  recitation  by  the  clergy. 

Psalm,  xci.  has  the  heading,  "  Song  for  the  Sabbath  day."  Psalm  c. 
(in  the  Hebrew),  "Psalm  at  the  thank  offering."  Several  psalms  are 
inscribed  "  Alleluia  "  =  "  Praise  the  Lord  " ;  an  invitation  to  the  con- 
gregation. In  the  headings  the  word  lamnazzeach  occurs  fifty- three 
times ;  it  is  generally  translated  "  to  the  chief  musician  "  ;  the  Seventy 
must  have  pointed  the  word  PI^JD1?  differently,  as  they  translated  it  els 
rt\os  (Itala  and  Vulgate  in  finem),  which  may  be  an  indication  that  the 
psalm  was  to  be  sung  at  the  conclusion  of  public  worship.  The  expres- 
sion sela  (nSjp)  is  generally  translated  tace  (Imp.  P.  with  H  parag., 
from  nSfr) ;  Maurer  renders  it  "raise"  (the  voice),  so  that  it  means 
forte  or  fortius.  The  Septuagint  has  Sid^aX^a,  music  in  the  interval. 
Gittith  (Ps.  viii.  and  elsewhere)  is  undoubtedly  a  stringed  instrument 
(from  firU,  to  strike).  Kaulen  draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
liturgical  function  of  many  of  the  psalms  that  are  personal  in  tone  may 
be  discovered  from  their  concluson.  For  instance,  Psalm  iii.,  which  is 
otherwise  in  the  first  person,  ends  with  the  words:  "Thy  blessing  is 
upon  thy  people."  Psalm  cxxxi.  is  similar. 

The  frequently  recurring  "  I "  of  the  Psalms  seems  to  be  a  kind  of 
answer  to  the  laws  of  the  Pentateuch,  which  are  mostly  given  with 
"thou"  (as,  for  instance,  in  the  Decalogue),  for  God  regards  His  people 
Israel  as  one  individual.  This  "  I "  is  also  an  allusion  on  the  part  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  to  both  the  ancient  theocracy  and  the  Messianic  king- 
dom, the  Church,  which  our  Saviour  describes  as  a  Kingdom  of  God  both 
on  a  large  and  on  a  small  scale,  both  in  mankind  in  general  and  in  each 
individual.  For  this  reason  the  Psalms  are  adapted  to  God's  universal 
Church  and  to  each  of  His  servants,  and  especially  for  His  Servant  /car* 
e|o^7]r,  the  Messias.  The  enemies  against  whom  complaints  are  raised  in 
the  Psalms  are  the  opponents  of  God  and  His  Anointed,  as  well  as  of  His 
Church  and  of  the  faithful  individually,  who  are  despised  and  perse- 
cuted for  their  loyalty  to  God.  The  psalms  of  imprecation  (xxxiv.,  li., 
Ixviii.,  cviii.,  Vulgate)  are  to  be  judged  from  this  point  of  view,  and  not 
regarded  as  the  imprecations  of  a  single  person.  This  explanation 
solves  the  difficult  problem  how  curses  can  be  reconciled  with  the  law 
of  love.  Who  ever  will  not  turn  to  God,  but  attacks  God's  kingdom  and 
those  belonging  to  it,  loses  peace,  which  is  a  mark  of  God's  favor,  and 
brings  down  a  curse  upon  himself.  He  is  warned  in  these  psalms  of 
imprecation  of  the  doom  that  his  wickedness  deserves.  Personal  hatred 
is  as  little  implied  as  in  Noe's  curse  laid  upon  his  son  Cham.  Besides, 
it  is  not  reasonable  to  apply  to  the  Old  Covenant  the  standard  of  the 
New.  Strict  justice  dominated  the  one,  love  and  mercy  the  other  (see 
infra,  p.  357). 

The  Psalms  are,  therefore:  (1)  Prayers  of  individuals  under  (a)  the 
Old  and  (6)  the  New  Covenant;  (2)  Prayers  of  the  whole  congregation 
of  the  faithful  under  (a)  the  Old  and  (6)  the  New  Covenant;  (3) 
Prayers  of  the  Messias,  who  speaks  not  only  in  His  own  Name  but  in 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    28? 

the  name  of  each   of  the  faithful   and  in   that  of  all  mankind  who 
believe. 

This  does  not,  however,  mean  that  to  every  psalm  this  threefold  or 
fivefold  description  applies.  We  have  here  evidence  that  Holy  Scripture 
must  be  inspired  by  God,  for  no  human  being  would  of  himself  be  able 
to  impart  such  manifold  meaning  to  the  sacred  songs. 


4.  Date  of  Collection.    The  collection  of  psalms,  as  we  have 
it,  is  very  ancient,  but  cannot  go  back  beyond  the  Captivity,  as 
in  it  are  some  psalms  which  clearly  were  written  either  during 
or  after  the  period  of  exile  (Ixxxiv.,  cv.,  cvi.,  cxxv.,  cxxxvi.). 
Collections   of  particular  psalms  must,  however,  have   existed 
earlier.    We  know  that  David  caused  religious  songs  to  be  sung 
in  the  Tabernacle,  thus  adding  to  the  beauty  of  the  worship 
there,   and   for  this   purpose   a   collection  of   such   songs   was 
requisite  (I  Chron.  xvi.  41;  II  Chron.  xxiii.  18;  I  Esdr.  iii.  10). 
This  collection  and  others  like  it  were  incorporated  in  the  gen- 
eral collection  made  after  the  Captivity.     That  it  consists  of 
parts,  some  of  which  are  older  than  others,  appears  from  the 
words  at  the  close  of  Psalm  Ixxi.,  "The  praises  of  David,  the 
son  of  Jesse,  are  ended."     All,  therefore,  that  precedes  these 
words  belongs  to  the  first  collection.    The  collection  as  we  have 
it  was  made  at  the  time  when  the  worship  of  God  was  restored 
by  Esdras  and  Nehemias  (II  Mach.  ii.  13). 

5.  Divisions  of  the  Psalter.     On  the  analogy  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, the  Psalter  is  divided  into  five  parts,  or  books,  which  can 
be  distinguished  by  the  doxology  at  the  close  of  each.    The  first 
book  contains  Psalms  i.-xl.;  the  second,  Psalms  xli.-lxxi.;   the 
third,  Psalms  Ixxii.-lxxxviii. ;  the  fourth,  Psalms  Ixxxix.-cv. ;  the 
fifth,  Psalms  cvi.-cl.     This  division  corresponds  with  the  five 
periods  in  which  the  different  collections  were  made.     The  first 
dates  from  the  time  when  the  ark  was  set  up  on  Sion  (I  Chron. 
xvi.  4)  ;  the  second,  from  the  close  of  David's  life  and  Solomon's 
accession,  to  which  Psalm  Ixxi.  refers;  the  third  belongs  to  the 
time  of  Ezechias  (II  Chron.  xxix.  30).    A  fourth  may  have  been 
made  during  the  reign  of  Josias  (II  Chron.  xxxv.  15).     The 
songs  in  the  fifth  book  contain  many  references  to  the  Captivity 
and  the  return  to  Palestine.     The  general  collection  of  all  the 
psalms  was  made  by  Esdras  and  Nehemias,  who  did  not  merely 


288    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

arrange  the  five  previous  collections,  one  after  the  other,  but 
inserted  in  each  of  them  other  songs,  some  old  and  some  new. 
It  is  possible  that  one  or  two  more  were  added  at  the  time  of 
the  Machabees,  to  bring  the  number  up  to  150. 

6.  Numbering.    The  numbering  of  the  psalms  in  the  Hebrew 
text  differs  from  that  of  the  Vulgate,  which  we  generally  use, 
and  which  is  derived  from  the  Septuagint.     The  Seventy  put 
Psalms  ix.  and  x.  together,  treating  them  as  one.     Thus  the 
number  assigned  to  each  of  the  following  psalms  was  one  less 
than  in  the  Hebrew  as  far  as  Psalm  cxiv.,  which  they  put  with 
cxv.,  so  that  these  two  together  are  numbered  cxiii.     But  in 
compensation  they  divided  cxvi.  into  two,  so  that  cxvii.  in  the 
Hebrew  is  cxvi.  in  the  Septuagint,  and  the  number  of  each 
psalm  in  the  Greek  continues  to  be  one  less  as  far  as  Psalm 
cxlvii.,  which  is  again  divided  into  two,  and  in  this  way  the 
numbering  is  made  to  coincide  again  with  that  of  the  original. 

7.  Classification  according  to  the  Contents. 

(a)  Songs  addressed  to  God  in  praise,  prayer  and  thanks- 
giving form  the  largest  class  of  the  psalms.  To  it  belong  also 
those  that  refer  to  nature,  such  as  viii.,  xviii.,  ciii. 

(6)  The  historical  or  national  psalms  also  form  a  numerous 
class,  in  which  the  theme  is  the  glorious  past  of  Israel  and  its 
distinctive  position  above  all  other  nations.  In  others  God's 
help  is  besought  to  prevent  it  from  being  oppressed  by  unbe- 
lievers, e.  g.  Psalms  Ixxviii.,  Ixxix. 

(c)  Very  many  of  the  psalms  are  didactic,  e.  g.  xxxvi.,  xlviii., 
Ixxii.  give  instruction  regarding  the  prosperity  of  the  godless. 

(d)  Some  are  lamentations;  the  penitential  psalms  belong  to 
this  class  (vi.,  xxxi.,  xxxvii.,  1.,  cl.,  cxxix.,  cxiii.). 

(e)  Several  psalms  are  prophetic,  and  celebrate  the  sufferings 
of  the  Messias  (xv.,  xxi.,  Ixviii.)  and  His  glory  (ii.,  xliv.,  cix.). 
These  are  called  Messianic  psalms. 

The  fifteen  psalms  numbered  cxix.-cxxxiii.  are  called  the  Gradual 
Psalms.  In  the  Hebrew  each  is  headed  n'lS^^n  Tfc?  =  song  of  the  ascent, 
canticum  gradwum.  This  name  is  variously  interpreted.  It  may  refer 
to  the  return  to  Palestine  from  the  low-lying  lands  near  the  Euphrates, 
or  to  the  pilgrimages  of  the  Jews  to  Jerusalem,  or  to  the  fifteen  steps 
leading  from  the  Court  of  the  Women  to  that  of  the  Men,  which  were 
ascended  by  people  singing,  at  the  ceremony  of  drawing  water,  which 


THE  SACEED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    289 

concluded  the  feast  of  Tabernacles.  At  the  present  time  they  are  said 
before  Matins  on  the  Wednesdays  in  Lent,  on  which  no  feast  of  nine 
lessons  occurs.  There  is,  however,  no  special  rule  enjoining  this  practice. 

More  Detailed  Statement  of  Contents 

First  Book.  1.  Theme  of  the  whole  Psalter;  happiness  to  those  true 
to  God,  destruction  to  the  godless.  2.  God  and  Christ  triumph  over  the 
powers  of  this  world.  3.  Morning  hymn.  4.  Evening  hymn.  5.  Morn- 
ing prayer.  6.  Cry  for  help.  7.  Help,  Lord,  for  the  persecuted!  8.  The 
firmament  of  heaven.  9.  Song  of  victory  —  request  for  further  help. 
10.  Confidence  in  God.  11.  Help,  0  Lord,  for  the  righteous!  12.  Delay 
not  to  save  us.  13.  Alas!  godlessness  prevails  everywhere!  14.  Whom 
will  God  suffer  to  approach  Him?  15.  The  suffering  Messias  cries  out 
for  help.  16.  Save  me  from  oppression!  17.  Hymn  of  thanksgiving  for 
safety.  18.  Glory  of  God  in  nature  and  in  the  law.  19.  Prayer  before 
battle.  20.  Thanksgiving  for  victory.  21.  The  crucified  Messias  im- 
plores God  to  save  him.  22.  God  is  my  shepherd.  23.  Hymn  to  celebrate 
the  bringing  of  the  Ark  to  Sion.  24.  O  God,  help  and  pardon  me!  25. 
Chastise  me  not  with  the  wicked!  26.  Courage  based  on  confidence  in 
God.  27.  Chastisement  only  for  sinners!  28.  God  is  glorified  in  the 
tempest.  29.  Thanksgiving  for  delivery  from  danger.  30.  Save  me!  31. 
Repentance  and  confession  of  guilt  bring  forgiveness.  32.  Praise  God, 
the  Mighty  and  Merciful.  33.  Fear  of  God  has '  good  results.  34.  Pun- 
ishment be  upon  our  enemies!  35.  Wickedness  is  on  all  sides,  our  help 
is  in  God.  36.  Apparent  happiness  of  the  wicked.  37.  I  am  weighed 
down  by  sin,  Lord  have  mercy  upon  me!  38.  I  suffer,  yet  I  trust  in 
God.  39.  I  thank  thee,  0  God;  help  me  still  further!  40.  The  merci- 
ful shall  find  mercy. 

Second  Book.  41.  Longing  for  the  sanctuary.  42.  Courage  and  con- 
fidence in  God.  43.  Glorious  past  and  gloomy  present,  may  God  help  us! 
44.  Marriage  hymn  of  the  Messianic  king.  45.  God  hath  delivered  Jeru- 
salem from  danger  of  enemies.  46.  God  hath  granted  victory  to  Israel. 
47.  What  God  hath  accomplished  in  Sion,  shall  never  be  forgotten.  48. 
The  happiness  of  sinners  is  fleeting.  49.  Not  outward  sacrifice,  but  the 
service  of  the  heart  is  pleasing  to  God.  50.  David's  confession  of  guilt. 
51.  God's  chastisement  falls  on  the  sinner.  52.  Like  Psalm  13.  53.  Save 
me!  54.  Lamentation  over  the  deceits  of  enemies.  55.  Like  Psalm  33. 
56,  57,  58.  Destroy  us  not,  but  help  us  to  resist  the  enemy.  59.  After 
hard  fighting  came  victory;  give  further  aid!  60.  Under  God's  protection 
will  I  stand  firm.  61.  God  alone  is  faithful.  62.  Trusting  in  God,  I  wait 
for  His  help.  63.  Evil  designs  fall  back  on  those  who  invent  them.  64. 
Thanksgiving  for  harvest.  65.  Thanksgiving  for  help  in  time  of  oppres- 
sion. 66.  Another  thanksgiving  for  harvest.  67.  Song  of  triumph ;  hope 
of  subjugating  all  nations.  68.  Being  oppressed,  I  cry  to  God  and  hope 
to  be  heard;  the  poet  speaks  thus  as  a  type  of  the  Messias.  69.  Like 
Psalm  39,  14-18.  70.  God  hath  helped  us  hitherto,  may  He  further  assist 
us.  71.  May  God  abide  with  Solomon,  who  is  a  type  of  the  Messias. 

Third  Book.  72.  The  prosperity  of  the  wicked  soon  passes  away.  I 
will  not  suffer  myself  to  be  misled.  73.  Lament  over  the  devestation  of 


290    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

the  sanctuary.  74.  Assyria  threatens,  but  our  God  is  stronger.  75. 
Hymn  of  thanksgiving  after  the  destruction  of  the  Assyrian  army.  76. 
Is  there  no  escape  from  the  power  of  the  enemies?  Remember  God's 
wonderful  deeds  at  the  time  of  Moses  and  Aaron.  77.  The  history  of 
Israel  from  Moses  to  David  teaches  us  that  to  fall  away  from  God  in- 
volves destruction.  Remain  loyal  to  the  king  anointed  by  God!  78.  The 
heathen  have  entered,  cry  to  God  for  help  (cf.  Psalm  73).  79.  Israel, 
God's  vine,  is  hard  pressed.  80.  Paschal  hymn.  81.  Unjust  judges  are 
judged  by  God.  82.  Many  foes  are  in  league  against  Israel,  O  God,  drive 
them  back !  83.  Joy  at  belonging  to  the  sanctuary  ( cf.  Psalm  41 ) .  84. 
Prayer  of  the  returning  exiles  for  new  mercies.  85.  O  Lord,  strengthen 
thy  servant!  86.  God's  city  of  Jerusalem  is  the  home  of  all  nations. 
87.  Prayer  for  delivery  in  time  of  great  distress,  that  has  already  lasted 
long.  88.  Great  promises  were  made  to  David,  but  his  race  has  sunk 
from  its  high  position.  O  Lord,  be  merciful  once  more! 

Fourth  Book.  89.  Moses  considers  human  misery,  the  consequence  of 
sin,  and  implores  God's  mercy.  90.  Trust  in  God.  91.  Much  in  the  life 
of  man  is  incomprehensible,  but  God  makes  all  good  (cf.  Ps.  36,  48,  72). 
92.  God's  power  over  the  world.  93.  God  is  our  support  against  unbe- 
lievers. 94.  Praise  and  obedience  be  to  the  Lord!  Otherwise  evil  will 
come.  95.  Sing  praises  to  the  Lord,  the  most  exalted  King  and  Judge! 

96.  Let  us  be  glad  that  the  glorious  King  of  all  the  world  is  our  God! 

97.  Israel  and  all  other  nations  are  to  praise  God,  the  judge  of  the  world. 

98.  All  nations  must  reverence  the  God  of  Israel.     99.  Praise  the  Lord, 
our  God,  to  whom  we  owe  existence  and  all  else.     100.  I  will  lead  a 
blameless  life  and  keep  sinners  aloof  from  me.     101.  I  am  wretched  and 
deserted,  in  deep  distress  I  implore  God's  mercy.     102.  Praise  God,  who 
forgiveth  all  thy  sins!     103.  God's  greatness  and  providence  in  the  uni- 
verse.   104.  Song  of  praise  prompted  by  the  history  of  Israel.    105.  Israel 
had  made  a  bad  return  for  God's  benefits,  and  so  was  punished  with 
exile. 

Fifth  Book.  106.  Thanksgiving  for  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land.  107. 
Reminiscences  of  Psalm  56  and  59.  God  is  with  us,  we  fear  no  foe.  108. 
Appeal  for  help  against  false  accusations  and  persecution.  109.  The 
Messias  is  king  and  priest;  he  conquers  all  his  enemies.  110.  Great  is 
God's  goodness  to  Israel.  111.  Happiness  will  follow  those  loyal  to  God, 
the  schemes  of  sinners  will  be  frustrated.  112.  God  in  his  greatness  wel- 
comes the  downcast.  (This  psalm  and  the  following,  as  far  as  117,  were 
recited  when  the  Paschal  lamb  was  eaten.)  113.  God's  benefits  at  the 
time  of  the  departure  from  Egypt.  114.  God  hath  helped  in  time  of  deep 
misery.  115.  Thanksgiving  for  the  help.  116.  Heathen  nations  also 
must  praise  the  true  God.  117.  God  heard  my  prayer,  I  will  trust  and 
thank  Him  for  ever.  118.  Utterances  of  a  believer,  who  proclaims  his 
loyalty  to  God  and  the  law  against  all  opposition.  The  sayings  are  ar- 
ranged alphabetically,  eight  times  over,  and  the  psalm  consists  of  eight 
times  twenty-two  verses;  one  hundred  and  seventy-six  in  all.  119.  For- 
mer prayers  have  been  granted,  therefore  I  now  have  confidence.  120. 
May  God  protect  me.  121.  Joy  over  Jerusalem.  122.  Lord,  take  away  our 
reproach.  123.  Had  God  not  been  with  us,  we  should  have  perished. 
124.  Have  trust  in  God,  who  will  not  abandon  Jerusalem.  125.  Joy  at 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDEEED  SINGLY    291 

delivery  from  imprisonment.  126.  God's  blessing  gives  prosperity.  127. 
He  who  strives  in  the  fear  of  the  Lord,  obtains  God's  blessing.  128.  I 
was  often  in  danger,  but  God  always  protected  me.  129.  The  greater  the 
need,  the  more  ready  is  God's  assistance.  130.  Humility  and  confidence 
cause  God  to  hear  our  prayers.  131.  David  had  zeal  for  God's  house, 
therefore  David's  house  shall  last  forever.  132.  Praise  of  harmony. 
133.  The  priests'  evening  blessing.  134.  Song  of  praise  to  God,  who  has 
shown  His  power  both  in  nature  and  in  the  history  of  Israel.  135.  God's 
mercy  is  over  all  His  works.  136.  Israel  mourns  in  exile.  Woe  to  those 
who  destroyed  Jerusalem!  137.  Thanksgiving  for  God's  benefits,  request 
for  further  help.  138.  God,  being  present  everywhere,  knoweth  that  I 
have  no  part  with  sinners.  139.  Keep  me  safe  from  the  hand  of  the 
wicked.  140.  Guard  me  from  the  snares  of  the  wrong-doer.  141.  I  can- 
not help  myself,  help  Thou  me,  O  God!  142.  Leave  me  not,  or  I  shall 
perish.  143.  Song  of  triumph  after  a  successful  contest.  144.  Glorious 
are  God's  greatness  and  mercy.  145.  Happy  is  Israel  in  its  trust  in  God, 
who  ruleth  the  world.  146,  147.  Praise  the  Lord  for  all  His  benefits. 

148.  All  created  things  in  heaven  and  earth  are  to  announce  God's  praises. 

149.  Israel  has  peculiar  reason  to  praise  God.     150.  Praise  be  to  God 
everywhere,  in  every  way  and  from  all  living  beings! 


10.    PROVERBS 
(31  chapters) 

1.  Name.    If  we  had  to  deal  here  only  with  proverbs  in  the 
ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  the  collection  would  not  be  included 
in  the  canon  of  Holy  Scripture.    But  the  proverbs  of  Solomon 
(proverbia  Salomonis,  Trapoipiai,  SaXwftoWo?,  mishle  Shelomo)  l 
differ  altogether  from  our  proverbs.    They  are  reflections  on  the 
truths  of  divine  revelation,  composed  in  poetical  form,  and  ap- 
plied to  the  circumstances  of  human  life.     The  book  also  con- 
tains maxims  of  life  derived  from  the  author's  own  experience. 

2.  Contents  and  Divisions.      The  book  is  divided  into  several 
parts  distinguished  by  their  titles. 

It  begins  with  a  detailed  introduction  applying  not  only  to  the  first 
part,  but  to  the  whole  work  ( i.  1-7 ) .  The  general  meaning  of  it  is :  the 
fear  of  God  is  the  foundation  of  all  wisdom.  "  Without  it  there  is  in 
the  world  nothing  but  folly,  i.  e.  immorality.  Morality  is  inconceivable 
without  fear  of  God." 

(a)   The   first   part    consists   of   chapters   i.-ix.     It   contains   not    so 


1  Mashal  means  primarily  comparison,  then  parable,  memento,  and 
also  probably  song,  poem,  because  of  the  regular  arrangement  of  the 
parts. 


292    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

much  a  collection  of  maxims  as  several  continuous  instructions  and 
admonitions,  intended  to  inspire  love  of  wisdom.1 

(6)  The  second  part,  chapters  x.-xxiv.  (or,  according  to  another 
view,  x.-xxii.  16 ),2  forms  the  chief  part  of  the  book  and  contains  most 
of  the  collection  of  maxims.  There  are  about  400  of  them,  expressing 
very  various  ideas,  but  clear  and  easily  understood;  e.g.  "A  wise 
son  maketh  the  father  glad,  but  a  foolish  son  is  the  sorrow  of  his 
mother,"  x.  1.  "He  that  loveth  correction,  loveth  knowledge;  but 
he  that  hateth  reproof  is  foolish,"  xii.  1.  "It  is  the  part  of  man  to  pre- 
pare the  soul,  and  of  the  Lord  to  govern  the  tongue,"  xvi.  1.  "Pride 
goeth  before  destruction,  and  the  spirit  is  lifted  up  before  a  fall," 
xvi.  18.  "  A  foolish  man  will  clap  hands,  when  he  is  surety  for  his 
friend,"  xvii.  18. 

(c)  In  chapter  xxv.  a  new  collection  begins,  headed:  "These  are  also 
parables  of  Solomon,  which  the  men  of  Ezechias  king  of  Juda  copied 
out."  These  proverbs  display,  on  the  whole,  the  same  characteristics  as 
the  others,  so  that  they  afford  confirmation  of  the  statement  that  they 
also  were  composed  by  Solomon.  It  is  quite  possible  that  of  the  3000 
maxims  of  this  king  (III  Kings  iv.  32)  many  besides  the  400  already 
collected  were  commonly  on  the  lips  of  the  people,  and  the  wise  and 
pious  counselors  of  King  Ezechias  selected  a  number  of  these,  and 
added  them  to  the  previous  collection.  They  are  contained  in  the  next 
five  chapters  of  the  book,  xxv.-xxx. 

As  specimens  we  may  quote :  "  As  clouds  and  wind  when  no  rain 
followeth,  so  is  the  man  that  boasteth,  and  doth  not  fulfill  his  promises," 
xxv.  14.  "As  a  moth  doth  by  a  garment,  and  a  worm  by  the  wood, 
so  the  sadness  of  a  man  consumeth  the  heart,"  xxv.  20. 

( d )  The  last  two  chapters  contain  additional  maxims,  —  xxx.  con- 
sists of  the  sayings  of  a  certain  Agur;  xxxi.  1—9,  advice  given  to  a 
king  named  Lemuel  by  his  mother;  10-31,  praise  of  a  good  housewife  in 
alphabetical  form.  The  names  Agur  and  Lemuel  are  probably  fictitious.3 


1  The  book  is  often  mentioned  as  "  Wisdom,"  as  are  also  Ecclesiastes, 
Canticles,  the  Book  of  Wisdom,  and  Sirach  or  Ecclesiasticus.    The  "  Wis- 
dom "  of  the  Bible  is  quite  unlike  the  ao<t>La  of  Greek  philosophy.     The 
latter  aims  at  discovering  the  ultimate  causes  of  all  things  by  means  of 
human  intellect,  and  knows  nothing  of  revelation;   but  wisdom  in  the 
Hebrew  sense  proceeds  from  revelation,  and  seeks  to  explain  everything  in 
the  world  by  its  aid.     To  the  Hebrew  sage  wisdom  is  theoretically  the 
knowledge,  derived  from  revelation,  of  how  to  live  aright,  and  practi- 
cally it  is  living  in  accordance  with  this  knowledge.     In  the  Hebrew 
sense   wisdom,   as    it   proceeds   from   revelation,    is   itself   revealed  and 
divine.     Even  in  this  book,  and  especially  in  chapter  viii.,  wisdom  is 
represented  as  a  person;    but  in  the  New  Testament  it  appears  fully 
revealed  as  Logos,  as  a  divine  Person. 

2  A  fresh  invitation  to  accept  the  teaching  of  wisdom  begins  in  ii.  17. 
8  Cf.  however,  Kirchenlexikon,  2d  ed.,  article  "  Agur  " ;  according  to 

this  article  Agur,  son  of  Jake,  was  really  a  Hebrew  sage.  Kaulen, 
Emleitung,  II,  142,  is  less  sure  of  it,  and  says  also  that  we  can  neither 
deny  nor  prove  that  Lemuel  meant  Solomon. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    293 

3.  Date  of  Composition.     It  is  obvious,  after  a  consideration 
of  the  contents,  that  all  the  parts  of  the  book  cannot  have  been 
compiled  at  the  same  time.    The  heading  of  the  third  part  shows 
that  a  collection  of  proverbs  existed  at  the  time  of  Ezechias,  and 
that,  at  this  king's  instigation,  a  further  collection  was  made 
and  appended  to  the  earlier  one.     The  last  two  chapters  also 
appear  to  belong  to  the  time  of  Ezechias.     We  have,  therefore, 
to  distinguish  two  chief  periods  in  the  compilation  of  this  book. 

I.  Chapters  i.-xxiv.  date  from  the  time  of  Solomon,  and  are 
to  a  great  extent  his  composition.     (Only  the  sayings  in  xxiv. 
23-34,  are  ascribed  in  xxiv.  23  to  other  wise  men.) 

II.  Chapters  xxv.-xxxi.  are  in  the  main  of  Solomon's  com- 
position, especially  xxv.-xxix.,  but  the  sayings  were  not  collected 
until  the  time  of  Ezechias,  when  they,  with  the  three  additions 
of  unknown  authorship,  were  appended  to  the  book. 

4.  Purpose  of  the  Boole.    Whoever  knows  of  God's  revelation 
and  feels  bound  to  live  in  accordance  with  it,  but  is  still  weak 
and  wavering  in  the  service  of  God,  may  be  instructed  by  this 
collection  of  rules  of  life. 

5.  Author.    That  Solomon  composed  most  of  the  sayings  is 
expressly   stated   in   i.    1    and   xxv.    1,   and   has   always   been 
acknowledged  by  Christian  and  Jewish  tradition.    The  pure  and 
dignified  language  bears  witness  to  the  composition  of  this  book 
as  belonging  to  the  golden  age  of  Hebrew  poetry,  i.  e.  to  the 
reign  of  Solomon. 

The  Septuagint  arrangement  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs  differs  in  some 
respects  from  the  Hebrew  and  the  Vulgate,  which  have  been  followed  in 
this  chapter.  It  contains  a  few  sayings  that  are  not  in  the  Hebrew,  and 
omits  some  that  are  to  be  found  there.  —  Against  admitting  the  book 
to  the  canon  of  Holy  Scripture  it  is  sometimes  urged  that  there  are 
many  sayings  in  it  which  any  uninspired  person  might  have  uttered. 
But  the  divine  revelation  contains  not  only  supernatural  things  but  also 
natural  truths,  which  gain  additional  weight  through  this  revelation. 
Cf.  Vatican  Council,  III.  2,  De  Revel.  The  fact  that  the  book  is  quoted 
as  scriptural  in  the  New  Testament  justifies  its  canonical  acceptation; 
e.g.  Hebrews  xii.  5,  "Whom  the  Lord  loveth,  He  chastiseth"  (Prov. 
iii.  12),  and  James  iv.  6,  "God  resistetn  the  proud"  (Prov.  iii.  34). 


294:    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 
11.   CANTICLE  OP  CANTICLES 

(8  chapters) 
1.   Name.     The  names  shir  hashshirim,  aa-pa  oGpaTayv,  can- 


ticum  canticorum,  all  express  the  idea  that  this  song  stands  as 
much  above  all  others  as  a  poem  above  ordinary  speech. 

2.  Contents.     According  to  its  literal  meaning,  the  song  is 
simply  an  account  of  sexual  love. 

A  shepherd  in  or  near  Jerusalem  loves  a  maiden  who  returns  his 
affection  with  similar  feelings.  They  vie  with  one  another  in  extolling 
each  other's  perfections  and  in  expressions  of  longing  for  their  union 
in  marriage.  The  hindrances  that  they  encounter  only  intensify  their 
love.  King  Solomon  is  mentioned  by  name,  but  it  is  more  than  doubtful 
whether  he  is  to  be  identified  with  the  bridegroom,  as  many  assert. 
It  seems  better  to  assume  that  the  bride  refuses  to  accept  hospitality  in 
the  palace,  and  rejects  the  king's  overtures,  because  she  wishes  to  re- 
main faithful  to  her  beloved  shepherd.  It  is  left  uncertain  whether  the 
lovers  ever  attain  to  a  permanent  union,  as  no  further  reference  is 
made  to  it.1 

3.  Interpretation.    The  rationalistic  view  is  that  the  book  is 
to  be  interpreted  literally,  and  that  the  beautiful  poem  is  merely 
an  account  of  human  love.2    In  reply  we  may  say: 

(a)  A  mere  love-song  would  never  have  been  admitted  to  the 
collection  of  the  sacred  books,  especially  not  as  the  Song  of 
Songs  ;  i.  e.  as  the  most  exalted  and  stately  canticle. 

(&)  An  erotic  poem  would  certainly  conclude  with  a  marriage, 
otherwise  the  account  would  be  incomplete  and  unsatisfactory. 

(c)  Tradition  not  only  of  the  Church,  but  also  among  the 
Jews,  is  absolutely  opposed  to  the  literal  interpretation.3 

(d)  At  the  Second  General  Council  of  Constantinople  (553) 

1  Ewald  gives  a  similar  account  of  the  contents. 

2  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  and  the  more  modern  rationalists  such  as 
Hitzig  and  Cornill,  take  this  view.     The  latter  remarks  that  no  un- 
prejudiced reader  could  for  a  moment  doubt  "that  the  theme  is  the 
love   of  man   for   woman   and   of  woman   for   man.  .  .  .  That   it   was 
admitted  to  the  canon  was  owing  to  the  mistake  of  interpreting  its  con- 
tents allegorically  (as  was  the  case  with  Ps.  xlv.  (xliv.)." 

8  That  even  the  Abyssinian  Church  has  always  maintained  the  alle- 
gorical interpretation  of  the  Canticle  of  Canticles  has  been  thoroughly 
proved  in  a  monograph  by  Seb.  Euringer,  Lpz.,  1900. 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    295 

the  Church  expressly  condemned  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia's  theory 
of  literal  interpretation. 

We  are  not  even  allowed  to  suppose  that  originally  a  real, 
human  love  prompted  the  composition  of  the  poem,  and  that  later 
the  account  of  it  was  taken  to  symbolize  a  higher  love,  so  that 
for  this  reason  the  book  was  included  in  the  Canon.  Such  a 
theory  would  not  harmonize  with  what  the  Church  teaches  re- 
garding inspiration,  namely  that  the  sacred  writers  were  influ- 
enced and  guided  throughout  by  God,  in  fact  that  God  is  really 
the  author  of  the  sacred  books.  They  cannot  be  at  first  human 
productions,  and  then  rendered  sacred  and  divine  by  subsequent 
inclusion  in  the  Canon.  The  Council  of  553  decided  that  such 
an  opinion  was  erroneous. 

The  correct  interpretation  is  the  allegorical ;  i.  e.  we  must 
assume  that  under  the  cloak  and  appearance  of  human  love  is 
represented  a  far  higher  union,  rising  above  all  that  is  earthly 
and  sensual.  There  is  no  reality  in  this  human  love,  it  is  only 
the  garment  in  which  a  lofty  mystery  is  clothed,  to  render  it 
intelligible  to  mankind.1 

4.  The  Mystery  extolled  in  the  Canticle  of  Canticles  is,  ac- 
cording to  the  traditional  explanation,  the  union  between  God 
and  faithful  mankind.  This  union  under  the  Old  Covenant  was 
the  bond  between  God  and  the  people  of  Israel,2  under  the  New 
Covenant  it  is  the  bond  between  Christ  —  the  Good  Shepherd 
—  and  the  Church.  Revelation  often  represents  this  union  as 
a  marriage;  our  Saviour  speaks  of  Himself  as  the  Bridegroom 

1  We  can  nevertheless  comply  with  the  instructions  requiring  us  to 
interpret  Holy  Scripture  first  literally  and  then  mystically.  We  must 
imagine  that  the  divinely  inspired  poet  described  an  ideal  human  love, 
but  in  doing  so  had  all  along  a  sacred  mystery  in  his  mind.  We  may 
fix  our  eyes  primarily  on  the  garment  or  type,  but  we  must  consider 
the  higher  mystical  meaning. 

a  Cf.  the  canticle  in  Isaias  v.  1,  2,  that  is  sung  to  the  "beloved" 
( TH) .  Language  very  similar  to  that  of  Isaias  is  used  by  the 
composer  of  the  Canticle  of  Canticles,  e.  g.  in  ii.  8,  10,  16;  v.  1.;  vi.  1. 
Although  the  bodily  perfection  and  Whole  form  of  the  bride  are  extolled, 
there  is  nothing  sensual  in  this,  for  it  signifies  that  by  surrender  to 
God,  the  whole  human  nature,  including  the  body,  is  ennobled  and 
spiritualized,  filled  with  supernatural  beauty  and  rendered  well  pleasing 
to  God.  For  this  reason  the  body,  too,  can  become  worthy  to  last  for- 
ever, as  the  bridegroom  is  everlasting. 


296    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

(Matt.  ix.  15),  and  Saint  Paul  states  (Eph.  v.  21-33)  that 
human  marriage  is  particularly  sacred  for  the  reason  that  it  is 
a  type  of  that  mysterious  spiritual  union.  A  relation,  re- 
sembling that  which  exists  between  God  and  the  human  beings 
loyal  to  Him  taken  collectively,  exists  also  between  God  and 
every  soul  filled  with  love  and  gratitude  towards  Him,  and  in 
a  special  way  between  God  and  every  soul  which,  for  love  of 
God,  keeps  itself  in  perfect  purity  and  renounces  ordinary 
marriage.  For  this  reason  many  passages  of  the  Canticle  of 
Canticles  are  applied  by  the  Church  particularly  to  Mary.1 

5.  Author.  Tradition  ascribes  the  poem  to  Solomon.  In 
style  and  language  it  belongs  to  the  fairest  and  happiest  period 
of  the  national  life.  It  used  to  be  universally  believed,  by 
Catholics  and  non- Catholics  alike,  that  Solomon  composed  the 
poem,  or  that  at  least  it  dated  from  his  reign.  The  most  recent 
criticism,  however,  on  the  ground  of  a  few  apparently  not 
Semitic  expressions,  assigns  it  to  a  very  late  period,  although 
in  III  Kings  iv.  32,  33,  Solomon  is  celebrated  as  a  poet  of  nature, 
and  therefore  seems  to  be  referred  to  distinctly  as  the  author 
of  this,  the  most  beautiful  of  all  Hebrew  songs.2 

1  In  a  monograph  L.  Hug  puts  forward  a  remarkable  interpretation, 
suggesting   that   the   poem   expressed   the   longing   on   the   part  of   the 
kingdom  of  Samaria  for  union  with  that  of  Juda.     In  as  far  as  this 
is  to  be  understood  the  noble  longing  felt  by  God's  faithful  people  in  the 
northern  kingdom  for  the  Lord  of  Israel,   dwelling  in  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem,  this  interpretation  may  be  accepted.     But  we  must  not  limit 
the  poem  to  this  one  idea. 

2  Reuss  thinks  that  the  book  was  written  in  the  Northern  Kingdom, 
soon  after   its   separation  from   the   Southern,   and  whilst  Thirza  was 
still  the  capital.    But  would  Solomon  have  been  honored  there?     Cornill 
remarks  that  if  it  can  be  said  of  any  book  "  Thy  speech  betrayeth  thee," 
this  is  true  of  the  Canticle  of  Canticles.     He  refers  particularly  to  the 
words  appirjon,  litter,  in  iii.  9,  declaring  that  it  is  the  Greek  (fropeidv, 
and  pardes,  garden,  in  iv.   13,  which  he  assumes  to  be  Persian.     But 
Maurer,   certainly   a    Hebrew    scholar,   derives   pardes   from   padas,    to 
spread  out,  and  appirjon  from  para,  to  carry.     Comely  rightly  points 
out  that  even  in  Debora's   song    (Judges  v.)    some  expressions   of  the 
same    kind   occur,    and   yet    no   one   questions    its    antiquity.  —  A.    von 
Scholz  upholds  the  allegorical  interpretation,  but  thinks  the  book  was 
composed  in  the  school  at  Jerusalem. 


THE  SACEED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    297 

12.     ECCLESIASTES 
(12  chapters) 

1.  Name.    This  book  is  called  in  Hebrew  Qoheleih,  which  the 
Seventy  translated  by  Ecclesiastes  =  preacher. 

QoMleth  (from  qahal  —  to  call  an  assembly,  to  speak  in  an  assembly) 
is  a  feminine  form,  but  probably  qohel  =  public  speaker.  Possibly  chokma 
might  be  supplied,  and  the  name  would  mean  "  Speaking  Wisdom." 

2.  Contents.    The  book  contains  a  decidedly  melancholy  view 
and  description  of  human  life,  written  in  poetical  form. 

The  author  surveys  all  the  various  ways  and  pleasures  of  life,  and 
finds  nowhere  anything  that  satisfies  the  heart;  all  is  vanity,  because 
all  is  fleeting.  Neither  life  itself,  that  passes  so  quickly,  nor  the  so- 
called  good  things  of  life,  such  as  high  rank,  power,  wisdom  and  knowl 
edge,  wealth  and  pleasure,  can  bestow  happiness,  which  every  man  de- 
sires. Is  man  therefore  to  abandon  himself  to  despair  as  a  pessimist? 
Or  is  he,  as  a  materialist,  to  adopt  the  principle:  Enjoy  life  whilst 
it  lasts,  for  all  will  soon  be  at  an  end?  No;  the  author,  at  the  close 
of  the  discussion,  comes  to  this  decision :  he  bids  man  "  Fear  God  and 
keep  His  commandments,  for  this  is  all  man  "  ( i.  e.  the  whole  duty  of 
man),  and  all  things  that  are  done,  God  will  bring  into  judgment  for 
every  error,  whether  it  be  good  or  evil  (for  reward  or  punishment). 

3.  Form.    The  writer  stands  as  a  spectator  amidst  the  fleeting 
phenomena  of  life,  and  expresses  his  thoughts  as  a  speaker  before 
an  imaginary  audience.    The  style  is  therefore  rhetorical  rather 
than  poetical,  and  yet  there  is  a  rhythm  throughout  that  dis- 
tinguishes  the  book  from  the  prose  writings.     Zapletal   says 
(supra,  325)  :  "  The  book  is  written  in  a  regular  meter/7 

4.  Author.     Solomon  is  generally  believed  to  have  composed 
the  book,  towards  the  end  of  his  reign,  after  he  had  gone  astray 
but  had  repented.    We  meet  with  him  here  as  a  penitent. 

Reasons  for  regarding  Solomon  as  the  author: 

(1)  He  is  mentioned  in  the  heading:  "Words  of  the  Qohtleth,  son  of 
David,  king  of  Jerusalem." 

(2)  The  author  speaks  of  himself  several  times  in  terms  applicable 
only  to  Solomon.    He  describes  the  splendor  of  his  court,  the  abundance 
of  his  riches  and  his  wisdom. 

(3)  On  the  ground  of  Jewish  tradition,  the  Rabbis  regard  Solomon 
as  the  author. 


298    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

(4)  The  Fathers  of  the  Church  speak  of  the  three  books  of  Solomon, 
so  they  ascribed  to  him  Ecclesiastes  as  well  as  the  Canticle  of  Canticles 
and  Proverbs.  Arguments  against  his  authorship  are  derived  from  the 
language  of  the  book,  which  not  only  differs  very  much  from  that  of 
the  Canticle  of  Canticles  and  Proverbs,  but  contains  many  Aramaic 
expressions,  that  suggest  its  belonging  to  the  period  after  the  Captivity. 

We  must,  however,  remember :  ( 1 )  that  a  man  full  of  youthful  vigor 
naturally  uses  vivid  language,  and  in  his  old  age  he  speaks  more  calmly 
and  sadly;  (2)  that  the  "Preacher"  is  addressing  the  people,  and  so 
must  adopt  the  popular  dialect,  which  in  Solomon's  time  had  absorbed 
many  foreign  expressions  and  forms,  in  consequence  of  the  constant  inter- 
course with  foreign  countries. 

Ecclesiastical  decisions  regarding  the  canon  declare  the  book  to  be 
Solomon's,  but  this  may  be  understood  to  mean  that  Solomon's  wisdom 
may  be  learnt  from  it,  as  from  Wisdom  and  Eeclesiasticus.  In  the 
decree  of  Innocent  I,  v.  405,  mention  is  made  of  "  Salomonis  libri  V," 
but  the  canon  of  the  Council  of  Trent  contains  no  allusion  to  its 
author.  On  the  ground  of  the  language,  Kaulen  doubts  whether  Solomon 
can  have  been  the  author.  Comely,  like  most  of  the  Catholic  writers 
(B.  Schafer,  Schenz,  Gietmann),  follows  tradition,  and  believes  that  he 
was.  Scholz  thinks  that  it  was  the  work  of  a  number  of  Chakamim 
(wise  men),  and  that  it  consists  of  an  original  portion  with  later  addi- 
tions. McNeile  (Cambridge,  1904)  believes  that  it  was  composed  about 
300  B.C.  Peters  (Bibl.  Ztschr.,  1903),  after  careful  comparison  with 
Eeclesiasticus,  considers  that  Ecclesiastes  is  based  upon  it,  and  assigns 
Eeclesiasticus  to  a  date  between  190-180  B.  c.  and  Ecclesiastes  to  one 
between  145-130  B.C.  Zapletal  (Bill.  Ztschr.,  1905)  lays  stress  on  the 
fact  that  it  is  not  possible  to  trace  any  influence  of  Greek  philosophy  in 
this  book. 

13.   THE  BOOK  OF  JOB1 
(42  chapters) 

1.  Contents.  Examination  into  the  cause  of  human  suffering, 
and  especially  the  sufferings  of  those  faithful  to  God. 

Job,  a  wealthy,  respected  and  pious  man,  living  in  the  land  of  Hus 
(Uz)  to  the  east  of  Palestine,  suddenly  becomes  very  unhappy  through 
the  tricks  of  Satan.  He  loses  his  goods  and  his  children,  and  is  at- 
tacked by  the  horrible  disease  of  leprosy.  Nevertheless,  he  long  remains 
submissive  to  God  and  patient  in  his  misery.  Three  friends,  Eliphas, 
Baldad  and  Sophar,  come  to  comfort  him,  but  they  are  so  much  horrified 
at  his  state  that  they  for  a  long  time  are  unable  to  speak.  Job's  patience 
now  gives  way,  and  he  breaks  out  into  bitter  complaints  at  his  lot,  that 
he  has  not  deserved,  and  he  longs  for  death.  His  friends  rebuke  him 


1  The  Hebrew  3i"«  ought  not  to  be  written  Hiob  (Luther),  but  Jjob  or 
Job  ( Sept.,  Vulg. ) .  H  is  not  =  ft,  but  is  a  spiritus  lenis,  an  inaudible 
breathing. 


THE  SACEED  BOOKS  CONSIDEEED  SINGLY    299 

for  these  lamentations,  and  say  he  must  have  drawn  down  this  punish- 
ment upon  himself  by  his  sins,  and  so  they  urge  him  to  do  penance, 
which  perhaps  may  change  his  fortune.  Job  persists  in  asserting  his 
innocence,  and  all  attempts  of  his  friends  to  convince  him  of  his  guilt  are 
fruitless;  they  finally  keep  silence  and  Job  remains  the  victor  in  this 
war  of  words.  Eliphas  speaks  three  times  and  so  does  Baldad,  but  Sophar 
only  twice.  Job  answers  each  of  these  speeches,  and  utters  both  the 
introductory  and  the  closing  words.  There  are  therefore  in  all  eighteen 
speeches,  or  if  Job's  last  utterance  which  is  once  interrupted  be  reckoned 
as  two,  there  are  nineteen.  —  Now  another  speaker  enters,  a  young  man, 
named  Eliu.  He  wishes  to  settle  the  dispute  by  explaining  that  neither 
Job  nor  his  friends  are  altogether  in  the  right.  To  Job  he  says :  "  No 
man  is  just,  but  God  alone."  Job's  assertion  of  his  innocence  could 
not  be  accepted,  because  it  made  piety  appear  useless.  To  the  friends 
he  says  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  suffering  is  always  the  result  of  sins 
committed;  God  often  desires  by  means  of  suffering  to  protect  man 
from  pride  and  from  the  sins  proceeding  therefrom.  —  This  decision, 
though  given  with  great  assurance,  satisfies  no  one  completely  because 
it  involves  a  contradiction;  yet  there  is  much  truth  in  it. 

It  is  plain  from  the  speeches  made  by  Job,  his  three  friends  and 
Eliu,  that  man  of  himself  is  incapable  of  understanding  the  causes  of 
suffering.  Therefore  God  Himself  appears  and  ends  the  strife.  His 
judgment  is  twofold;  it  is  partly  against  Job,  who  has  grumbled  at 
Him,  whilst  appreciating  far  too  little  the  power  and  wisdom  with 
which  God  guides  the  destinies  of  men;  and  it  is  partly  for  Job  and 
against  his  friends,  whose  harshness  is  rebuked.  After  Job  has  asked 
forgiveness  of  God  for  his  complaints,  he  recovers  his  prosperity  in 
greater  measure  than  before. 

2.  Divisions.     (1)   Chapters  i.-iii.,  Job's  happiness  and  his 
misfortunes.     (2)  iii.-xxxi.,  conversation  between  Job  and  his 
friends  regarding  the  causes  of  his  affliction.     (3)  xxxii.-xxxvii., 
Eliu's  speeches.     (4)  xxxviii.-xli.,  appearance  of  God  and  His 
decision.     (5)  Job's  restoration  to  happiness. 

3.  Purpose  of  the  Book.    The  Book  of  Job  must  not  be  re- 
garded as  an  account  of  the  suffering  of  a  single  individual, 
but  as  giving  touching  expression  to  the.  sorrows  of  all  in  afflic- 
tion.   It  may  be  called  the  lamentation  of  all  suffering  humanity 
and  especially  of  such  as  are  not  redeemed. 

As  long  as  the  believer  in  God  under  the  Old  Dispensation 
uttered  these  complaints  and  cherished  at  the  same  time  the  wish, 
so  often  repeated  by  Job,  that  God  Himself  might  appear  and 
exert  His  power,  he  must  have  been  penetrated  with  a  longing 
for  redemption. 

Two  causes  of  suffering  are  mentioned  in  the  book:   (1)  At  the 


300    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

beginning,  and  still  more  clearly  at  the  end,  it  shows  how  God's 
power  and  wisdom  are  supreme  over  mankind  and  govern  their 
destinies.  God  allows  suffering  that  He  may  test  men,  purify 
them,  and  finaUv  reward  them  generously.  We  learn  from  Job's 
example  that  every  sufferer,  though  he  complain,  should  still  trust 
calmly  to  God's  providence,  for  God  always  turns  sorrow  to  our 
advantage.  It  is  a  law  of  Divine  Providence  that  joy  shall  fol- 
low sorrow.  (2)  The  more  direct  cause  of  suffering  is  that 
Satan  (chap,  ii.)  through  sin  has  won  a  hold  upon  mankind, 
and  uses  his  power  to  drag  men  with  him  into  misery,  as  far 
as  he  can.  When  sin  is  removed  by  redemption,  the  power  of 
hell,  and  with  it  suffering,  will  vanish  more  and  more. 

This  examination  has  not  exhausted  all  the  purpose  of  the 
book,  for  Job  has  also  a  typical  character.  The  suffering  of 
the  innocent  is  incomprehensible  to  man,  and  yet  in  the  suffer- 
ing of  the  most  guiltless  lies  the  deepest  wisdom.  There  is 
namely  such  a  thing  as  vicarious  suffering,  and  Job  is  a  type 
of  our  Eedeemer,  and  a  dim  foreshadowing  of  Him  who  was 
to  endure  terrible  agony  on  behalf  of  others,  in  order  to  wipe 
away  sin  and  conquer  the  powers  of  hell  (chap,  xl.,  xli.).  The 
patristic  explanation  has  always  insisted  upon  this  point. 

4.  Historical  Foundation.     That  the  story  has  an  historical 
foundation  and  is  not  merely  a  work  of  the  imagination  seems 
no  less  certain  than  that  the  details  are  fictitious.     The  art- 
fully composed  speeches  are  all  fiction. 

Reasons  for  believing  the  groundwork  to  be  historical  are  the  fol- 
lowing: (a)  In  both  the  Old  and  New  Testament  (Ezech.  xiv.  14;  Tob. 
ii.  11,  etc.;  James  v.  11)  reference  is  made  to  Job  as  to  an  historical 
person  who  was  a  model  of  piety  and  patience.  The  Talmud,  too, 
assumes  that  he  was  a  real  man,  a  contemporary  of  Moses.  (&)  The 
indications  of  place  in  the  book  point  to  his  being  historical,  and  so 
does  the  statement  that  he  was  an  Arab,  and  therefore  a  foreigner.  If  the 
author  had  aimed  at  describing  a  fictitious  character,  he  would  certainly 
have  made  his  hero  a  Hebrew,  (c)  Mere  romances  seem  to  have  been 
unknown  in  the  ancient  world.  Every  great  poem  that  has  come  down 
from  antiquity  (such  as  the  Iliad,  Odyssey  and  JSneid)  has  an  his- 
torical foundation. 

5.  Date  and  Authorship.     Some  critics  believe  the  Book  of 
Job  to  be  as  old  or  older  than  the  Pentateuch;   others  assign  it 
to  the  period  of  the  Captivity  or  even  later. 


THE  SACEED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY     301 

In  favor  of  the  first  theory  is  the  fact  that  it  contains  no 
allusion  to  the  law  of  Moses.  But  the  law  could  not  have  been 
mentioned,  as  the  hero  is  not  an  Israelite.  The  description  of 
the  perfection  of  the  Creator  and  Preserver  ojfi  the  world,  as 
given  in  the  book,  suggests  that  the  author  must  have  known  the 
Pentateuch,  and  especially  the  story  of  Creation  contained  in  the 
Book  of  Genesis.  In  the  same  way  the  enumeration  of  the  sins 
(xxiv.  2-11)  that  Job  knows  he  has  not  committed,  seems  to 
allude  to  parts  of  the  Pentateuch  (Ex.  xxii.  25;  Lev.  xix.  9,  and 
xxv.  2;  Deut.  xxiv.  10).  The  advanced  age  to  which  Job 
lived  —  he  is  said  to  have  lived  140  years  after  his  misfortunes 
—  the  mention  of  star  worship  (xxxi.  26),  from  which  he  held 
himself  aloof,  and  his  position  as  prince  and  priest,  are  all  indi- 
cations of  his  having  belonged  to  the  time  of  the  patriarchs. 
But  though  Job  himself  may  have  lived  at  this  early  period, 
the  book  may  have  been  written  later. 

The  date  of  its  composition  cannot  however  have  been  so  late 
as  the  Captivity.  This  is  plain  from  Tobias  ii.  15,  and  Ezechiel 
xiv.  4,  where  Job  is  praised  for  his  virtues;  and  there  are  sev- 
eral passages  in  Amos  and  Jeremias  that  are  borrowed  from  the 
Book  of  Job.1  The  Aramaic  expressions  in  the  book  are  not 
numerous,  and  are  quite  natural  in  a  work  containing  the  record 
of  events  in  the  east  of  Palestine,  where  Aramaic  was  spoken. 
No  one  can  prove  with  certainty  that  an  Aramaic  element  did 
not  find  its  way  into  Hebrew  before  the  Captivity.  Political 
connections  and  frequent  intercourse  always  have  some  influ- 
ence on  the  speech  of  a  country. 

Intercourse  with  foreign  countries  was  especially  frequent  in 
the  time  of  Solomon,  whose  dominions  extended  far  to  the  north 
and  south.  This  period  coincides  with  the  golden  age  of  Hebrew 
poetry,  and  the  Book  of  Job  is  perhaps  its  greatest  production. 
It  is  therefore  probable  that  the  book  was  written  during 
Solomon's  reign,  and  most  of  the  modern  critics  are  of  this 
opinion.2 

1  Amos  v.  8  suggest  Job  ix.  9;   Jer.  xvii.   1   suggests  Job  xix.  24; 
Jer.  xx.    14,   etc.,   suggests  Job   iii.   3,   etc.,  and  Jer.   xx.    17   suggests 
Job.  iii.  11,  etc. 

2  Herbst,    Welte,   Kaulen,   Comely,   Danko,    Zschokke,   Schenz,   Kna- 
benbauer,  also   the   Protestant   writers   Keil,   Delitzsch,   Hengstenberg, 


302    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

The  resemblance  between  Job  and  Proverbs  leads  us  to  think 
that  they  belong  to  the  same  period.  —  The  author  is  utterly  un- 
known. He  may  possibly  have  been  Asaph,  who  composed  some 
psalms  containing  opinions  and  subjects  not  unlike  those  to 
be  found  in  Job  (Ps.  Ixxii.,  Ixxxi.).  J.  Royer  tries  to  show 
that  the  prophet  Jeremias  was  the  author. 

For  the  meter  of  the  book  see  page  283.  Friedrich  Delitzsch,  an 
authority  on  Assyrian  monuments,  thinks  that  the  text  of  Job  has 
been  very  accurately  preserved. 


THIRD    SECTION 

THE    PERIOD    FROM    THE    DIVISION    OF    THE    KINGDOMS 
UNTIL   THE   END  OF   THE   CAPTIVITY 

14.   HISTORICAL  SURVEY 

The  following  historical  events  are  connected  with  the  com- 
position of  the  sacred  books  belonging  to  the  third  period  of  the 
history  of  Israel. 

1.  The  separation  of  the  kingdom  into  two  parts :  the  Kingdom 
of  Juda  in  the  south,  where  the  dynasty  of  David  continued  to 
rule  with  Jerusalem  as  the  capital  of  a  State  consisting  of  the 
tribes  of  Juda  and  Benjamin;    and  the  Kingdom  of  Samaria 
(Israel,  Ephraim)  in  the  north,  consisting  of  the  remaining  ten 
tribes,  having  kings  of  its  own  and  Samaria  (Heb.,  Schomron 
=  hill  of  the  watch)  as  its  capital. 

2.  The  overthrow  of  the  northern  kingdom  by  the  Assyrians, 
and  the  carrying  off  of  the  inhabitants  to  Assyria  (722). 

3.  The  overthrow  of  the  southern  kingdom,  the  destruction 

etc.  It  has  been  assigned  to  the  time  of  Moses,  or  earlier,  by  Goldhagen, 
Jahn,  Ackermann  and  others.  Some  ascribe  it  to  Moses;  several  of 
the  Fathers  do  this,  as  well  as  Saint  Jerome,  and  some  more  recent 
commentators,  such  as  Tostatus  and  Bellarmine.  Saint  Gregory  of 
Nazianzen,  Saint  John  Chrysostom  and  Calmet  believe  Solomon  to  have 
been  the  author.  Cornill  and  Kautzsch,  however,  think  that  it  is  of 
much  later  origin,  belonging  to  the  Greek  period  (between  330  and  200), 
their  chief  reason  being  that  it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  earlier  literature ; 
but  cf.  page  301. 


THE  SACEED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    303 

of  the  Temple,  the  plundering  and  burning  of  the  Temple,  and 
the  carrying  off  of  the  Jews  to  Babylon  (588). 

4.    The  return  from  the  Babylonian  Captivity   (536). 

The  chronology  in  the  Books  of  Kings  is  not  perfectly  trustworthy, 
as  data  have  been  stated  carelessly  and  uncritically,  but  the  se- 
quence of  the  Kings  is  certain.  It  is  also  certain  that  the  year  722 
witnessed  the  overthrow  of  the  northern  kingdom,  588  the  first  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  536  the  return  from  Captivity.  The  duration 
of  the  kings'  reigns  in  the  two  kingdoms  cannot  be  determined  until  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions  in  Assyria  and  Babylonia  have  been  more  fully 
examined.  The  following  dates  of  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  kings 
have  been  verified  from  cuneiform  inscriptions :  Tiglath  Pilesar  =  Phul, 
745-727,  king  of  Assyria;  Salmanassar  IV,  his  successor,  727-722; 
Sargon,  722-705  (after  709  king  of  Babylon  also)  ;  Sennacherib,  705- 
682;  Assarhaddon,  681-668;  Assurbanipal,  668-626;  Nabuchodonosor, 
605-562. 

LIST    OF   THE    KINGS 
(a)   Of  the  Northern  Kingdom 

1.  Jeroboam  I.  2.  Nadab.  3.  Baasa.  4.  Ela.  5.  Zambri.  6. 
Omri.  7.  Achab.  8.  Ochozias.  9.  Joram.  10.  Jehu.  11.  Joachaz. 
12.  Joas.  13.  Jeroboam  II.  Interregnum.  14.  Zacharias.  15.  Sellum. 
16.  Manahem.  17.  Phaceia.  18.  Phacee.  Interregnum.  19.  Osee,  722. 

(&)  Of  the  Southern  Kingdom 

1.  Roboam.  2.  Abias.  3.  Asa.  4.  Josaphat.  5.  Joram.  6.  Ocho- 
zias. 7.  Athalia  (queen).  8.  Joas.  9.  Amasias.  10.  Ozias  (  = 
Azarias).  11.  Joatham.  12.  Achaz.  13.  Ezechias.  14.  Manasses. 
15.  Amon.  16.  Josias.  17.  Joachaz.  18.  Joakim.  19.  Jechonias. 
20.  Sedecias,  588. 

The  Israelites  of  the  northern  kingdom  who  were  carried 
away  to  Assyria  never  returned  home,  but  were  lost  among  the 
Gentiles.  Colonists  from  the  east  settled  in  their  land  of 
Samaria,  intermarrying  with  the  Israelites  that  still  remained 
there;  but  the  heathen  element  was  by  far  the  stronger,  so  that 
the  Samaritans  were  of  mixed  race.  The  Jews  who  had  been 
taken  to  Babylon  were  allowed  to  go  back  to  their  own  country 
by  Cyrus,  after  his  conquest  of  Babylon.  Not  by  any  means 
did  all  the  Jews  return  to  the  Holy  Land ;  those  who  did  so  were 
only  a  small  proportion  of  the  people,  a  "remnant,"  as  the 
prophets  had  foretold.  Subsequently  other  companies  of  Jews 


304    HANDBOOK  EOK  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

came  back,  chiefly  as  a  result  of  the  exertions  of  Esdras  and 
Nehemias. 

The  seventy  years  of  the  Babylonian  Captivity,  foretold  by 
Jeremias  (xxv.  and  xxix.)  are  not  always  assigned  to  the  same 
dates.  It  seems  best  to  take  606,  rather  than  either  588  or 
599,  as  the  first  of  the  seventy  years,  for  it  was  in  that  year  that 
Nabuchodonosor  first  conveyed  a  great  number  of  Jews,  mostly 
young  men  of  good  birth,  to  Babylon.  In  this  way  the  seventy 
years  end  in  536,  which  was  the  date  of  the  Eeturn.  Within 
this  period  many  of  the  books  of  the  Bible  were  written ;  namely, 
all  the  prophetic  books  with  the  exception  of  three  that  belong 
to  the  fourth  period. 

We  generally  reckon  that  there  were  sixteen  prophets,  four 
major  and  twelve  minor,1  or,  if  Baruch  be  regarded  not  as  an 
appendix  to  Jeremias,  but  as  an  independent  work,  there  were 
seventeen. 

To  the  period  before  the  Captivity  belong  Isaias  and  Jeremias, 
Jonas,  Amos,  Joel,  Abdias,  Osee,  Micheas,  Nahum,  Sophonias, 
Habakuk.  To  the  Captivity  itself,  Baruch,  Ezechiel  and  Daniel. 
(Prophets  who  lived  after  the  Captivity:  Aggeus,  Zacharias, 
Malachias.) 

The  above  is  the  historical  order,  but  that  of  the  Septuagint  is: 
Oseas,  Joel,  Amos,  Abdias,  Jonas,  Micheas,  Nahum,  Habakuk,  Sophonias, 
Aggeus,  Zacharias,  Malachias,  Isaias,  Jereinias,  Baruch,  Threni,  Letter 
of  Jeremias,  Ezechiel,  Daniel.  The  Vulgate  has  the  same  arrangement, 
except  that  the  four  major  prophets,  Lamentations  and  Baruch  are 
placed  before  Oseas.  In  the  Hebrew  Bible  Isaias,  Jeremias  and  Ezechiel 
stand  before  the  minor  prophets,  whilst  Daniel  is  placed  after  Esther 
among  the  Ketubim. 

15.   PROPHECY  IN  GENERAL 

1.  Those  persons  under  the  Old  Covenant,  who  were  called 
directly  by  God  to  proclaim  His  will,  and  who  received  super- 
natural powers  for  the  purpose,  are  known  as  prophets.2  They 

1  The  twelve  minor  prophets  collectively  form  one  book.  Sirach, 
writing  as  early  as  200  u.  c.,  if  not  sooner,  speaks  of  the  "  twelve 
prophets"  as  belonging  together  (Ecclus.  xlix.  12). 

The  Hebrew  name  is  nali,  plural  neliim  (from  naba,  to  gush 
forth,  to  speak  in  a  lively  and  inspired  manner)  =  inspiratus,  inspired 
speaker.  They  are  often  called  also  seers,  watchmen,  shepherds,  or  men 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY     305 

did  not  form  a  class  enjoying  inherited  privileges,  as  did  the 
priests  and  kings,  but  they  were  chosen  and  commissioned  by 
God  for  a  time  to  carry  certain  messages. 

Such  were  Moses,  Josue  and  Samuel  in  the  earliest  period  of 
Jewish  national  life, -and  later  Nathan,  Elias,  Eliseus  and  others. 
The  earlier  prophets  were  conspicuous  chiefly  for  their  deeds, 
the  later  for  their  words,  many  of  which  were  recorded  by  them- 
selves or  by  others.  The  activity  of  the  later  prophets  lasted 
from  about  800  to  400  B.  c. 

2.  Functions  of  the  Prophets.  The  primary  duty  of  each 
prophet  was  to  benefit  his  own  generation,  to  maintain  the 
fidelity  of  the  people  towards  God,  and  to  threaten  sinners  with 
God's  chastisement.  They  were  a  kind  of  conscience  to  the 
nation.  Incidentally,  a  glance  into  the  future  of  Israel  was 
often  vouchsafed  to  them,  and  this  they  described  sometimes  in 
threatening,  sometimes  in  encouraging  language.  They  also  took 
into  account  the  destinies  of  foreign  nations,  as  far  as  they  came 
into  contact  with  God's  people.  To  foretell  the  future  was 
therefore  not  the  only  duty  assigned  to  the  prophets,  although 
it  formed  an  essential  part  of  their  functions.  The  true  prophets 
were  distinguished  from  the  false  especially  by  the  fulfillment 
of  their  prophecies,  -although  this  often  took  place  after  their 
death  (Deut.  xviii.  21,  22).  The  most  important  of  their 
prophetic  utterances  are  the  Messianic  prophecies,  by  means  of 
which  the  people  of  God  were  prepared  for  the  coming  of  the 
Redeemer,  and  their  longing  for  Him  was  awakened,  maintained 
and  intensified. 

The  false  prophets,  who  are  so  often  mentioned,  were  generally  opti- 
mists or  flatterers,  announcing,  ostensibly  at  God's  bidding,  nothing 
but  what  was  pleasant,  thus  encouraging  the  people  in  their  wickedness, 
for  they  relied  upon  the  exalted  destiny  of  Israel  as  if  it  made  any 
chatisement  on  God's  part  inconceivable  (cf.  e.g.  Jer.  xxiii.  and 
xxvi.).  Our  Saviour  has  warned  us  that  there  would  be  false  prophets 
also  under  the  New  Covenant,  and  said  that  they  might  be  recognized 
by  their  fruits,  for  suffering  and  misery  were  involved  in  following 
their  doctrines  (Matt.  vii.  15). 


of  God.  The  Greek  name  signifying  "  one  who  foretells  "  does  not  convey 
an  idea  of  their  whole  duty.  The  root  of  nabi  occurs  in  the  form  naba'a, 
also  in  Assyrian  and  Arabic;  in  Assyrian  it  means  "to  speak,  an- 
nounce " ;  in  Arabic,  "  to  report,  make  known." 


306    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

3.  Personality.     The  prophets  were  as  a  rule  holy  persons, 
but  sanctity  was  not  a  necessary  condition  of  a  prophetic  voca- 
tion.   Hence  we  find  among  the  prophets  not  only  Jonas,  who 
in  his  disobedience  wished  to  escape  from  God,  but  also  the 
Gentile   Balaam.     Natural    qualifications   were   not    absolutely 
requisite,  and  therefore  people  of  very  different  positions  in 
life  were  intrusted  with  the  work  of  a  prophet.     We  find  in 
the  company  of  aristocrats,  such  as  David  and  Daniel,  the  prophet 
Amos  who  was  a  simple  countryman. 

We  hear  of  schools  of  the  prophets,  but  we  must  not  imagine  them 
to  have  been  schools  in  our  sense  of  the  word,  places  where  prophets 
were  trained,  as  we  have  schools  for  physicians  or  lawyers.  The  word 
"  school "  denotes  only  a  connection  such  as  existed  between  Christ  and 
His  Apostles,  though  it  is  possible  that  in  these  schools  a  prophetic 
vocation  was  often  awakened  by  the  singing  and  the  study  of  the  law 
(I  Sam.  (Kings)  x.  5;  xix.  20).  Of.  the  article  Prophet enschulen 
by  Welte  in  the  Kirchenlexikon. 

4.  The  Mode  of  the  Divine  Communications  varied.   As  a  rule, 
the  prophets  received  only  inward  illumination;  but  often  they 
had  visions,  perceived  by  means  of  the  senses.     Sometimes  they 
were  instructed  when  in  a  state  of  ecstacy,  or  favored  with  a 
vision.    They  generally  speak  of  the  future  as  if  it  were  present, 
for  they  were  seers.    The  present  and  the  future  are  often  con- 
fused in  their  utterances. 

5.  The  spoken  word  of  the  prophets  was  intended  for  their 
contemporaries,  the  written  for  the  future,  as  witness  of  the 
truth  and  as  a  testimony  against  Israel. 

6.  In  order  to  understand  the  prophetic  books  we  must  always 
bear  in  mind :  (a)  that  Israel  is  God's  people,  and  as  such  exalted 
above  other  nations;    (6)  it  possesses  the  kingdom  of  God  on 
earth  and  is  the  bearer  of  the  hopes  of  redemption;    (c)  it  is 
false  to  God,  and  therefore  is  punished;    (d)  God's  kingdom  is 
not  to  perish  on  that  account,  but  (e)  out  of  Israel  shall  come 
the  Messias.1 

1  It  is  a  purely  arbitrary  assumption  on  the  part  of  Wellhausen 
and  his  followers  that  all  predictions  of  a  better  future  and  of  re- 
demption were  interpolated  into  the  writings  of  the  prophets  after  the 
Captivity.  Such  critics  say  that  the  small  remnant  of  the  Israelite 
nation  spent  their  time  in  dreaming  of  a  revival  of  David's  kingdom, 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    307 
PROPHETS    PREVIOUS    TO    THE    DOWNFALL    OF    THE 

NORTHERN  KINGDOM 

16.   JONAS 
(4  chapters) 

1.  Contents.    Jonas,1  son  of  Amathi,  is  commissioned  by  God 
to  announce  the  destruction  of  the  great  city  of  Ninive.     The 
people  of  Ninive  do  penance,  and  therefore  the  town  is  spared. 

Jonas  belonged  to  the  northern  kingdom,  having  been  born  at  Geth- 
Opher,  of  the  tribe  of  Zabulon  (IV  Kings  xiv.  25).  He  sought  by 
flight  to  avoid  carrying  out  his  task  of  going  to  Ninive  and  of  announc- 
ing the  coming  destruction  of  the  city,  and  so  he  set  sail  on  a  Phoenician 
ship  bound  for  Tharshish  (Tartessus  in  Spain).  A  terrible  storm  arose 
at  sea  on  his  account,  and  the  sailors,  fearing  the  deity,  threw  him  into 
the  sea.  He  was  swallowed  by  a  great  fish,  but  remained  alive,  and 
as  he  repented  and  prayed  to  God,  he  was  cast  up  on  the  shore  still 
living  after  three  days.  Now  he  fulfilled  God's  commission,  but  as 
the  Ninivites  betook  themselves  to  penance,  the  sentence  was  not  executed 
at  that  time.  Jonas  murmured  for  this  reason  against  God,  who  re- 
buked him  gently. 

2.  Truth  or  Fiction.      This  story  is  to  be  regarded  as  perfectly 
true,  for  our  Saviour  spoke  of  Jonas  as  of  an  historical  person 
(Matt.  xii*.  40-42;  Luke  xi.  30,  31),  thus  testifying  to  the  truth 
of  the  story.2    The  occurrences  related  in  the  book  are  certainly 

and  as  their  hopes  were  not  realized,  they  sought  consolation  partly  in 
inventing  a  glorious  past,  and  partly  in  looking  forward  to  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  Gentiles.  All  that  the  prophetical  books  contain  re- 
garding the  triumph  of  the  kingdom  of  God  over  the  Gentile  world  is, 
according  to  these  critics,  really  of  very  late  origin,  but  has  been  put 
into  the  mouths  of  the  prophets.  Some  books,  such  as  Daniel,  were 
altogether  fictitious ;  to  others  large  additions  were  made,  e.  g.  Isaias 
was  more  than  doubled. 

Such  theories  are  inevitable  when  the  supernatural  is  altogether 
denied.  Against  them  Nahum  may  be  quoted,  for  his  book  has  always 
been  recognized  as  genuine,  and  as  belonging  to  the  time  before  the 
Captivity.  He  speaks  in  exactly  the  same  way  of  Assyria  as  Isaias  of 
the  Gentiles.  In  chapter  ii.  he  says  that  Assyria  must  be  overthrown, 
because  the  kingdom  of  God  cannot  be  allowed  to  perish.  Are  we  to 
suppose  that  all  the  Jewish  authors  after  the  Captivity  were  liars  and 
deceivers,  devoid  of  all  conscience? 

1  rn'r  =  dove. 

2  "For  as   Jonas  was  in  the  whale's   belly  three   days   and   three 
nights,  so  shall  the  son  of  man  be  in  the  heart  of  the  earth  three 


308    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 

unparalleled,  but  not  therefore  incredible.  Who  will  dare  to 
limit  the  power  of  the  Almighty,  and  prescribe  to  Him  how  far 
He  may  go  without  encountering  human  unbelief?  The  fish 
mentioned  in  the  story  was  probably  a  gigantic  dog  fish  (Canis 
carcharias) ;  this  species  is  still  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
not  unfrequently  destroys  human  life.  If  it  be  asked  why  God 
chose  to  work  this  miracle,  Jesus  Christ  (loc.  cit.)  Himself  sug- 
gests that  it  was  in  order  that  Jonas  should  be  a  type  of  His  own 
death  and  resurrection.  This  explains  also  why  this  story  is 
included  among  the  prophetic  books,  and  is  placed  at  the  be- 
ginning of  them.  The  size  ascribed  to  Ninive,  "  a  city  of  three 
days'  journey/'  is  borne  out  by  recent  discoveries  on  the  Tigris. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  ruins  in  the  north  (Sargon's  Palace) 
to  the  end  of  them  in  the  south  (mouth  of  the  great  Zab)  is  about 
twenty  hours'  walk,  and  one  day's  journey  generally  meant  from 
six  to  eight  hours'  walk. 

3.  Author.    Probably  Jonas  himself  composed  the  book,  being 
moved  to  do  so  by  his  feelings  of  contrition  for  his  faults.     It 
may,  however,  be  assumed  that  his  record  was  arranged  by  a 
subsequent  writer  so  as  to  form  the  present  book. 

4.  Date.    The  prophet  must  have  lived  about  the  year  800  B.  c., 
as,  according  to  IV  Kings  xiv.  25,  he  prophesied  the  successful 
expedition  made  by  Jeroboam  II  against  Syria. 

Strack  thinks  that  the  Book  of  Jonas  may  have  been  written  at 
the  end  of  the  sixth  or  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century.  Cornill  assigns 
it  to  "the  latest  period  of  spoken  Hebrew,"  and  refers  it  to  the  fourth 
century.  He  bases  this  view  chiefly  on  peculiarities  in  diction,  but  the 
nine  expressions  on  which  he  relies  are  not  so  convincing  as  to  force 
us  to  admit  so  late  an  origin;  they  are  partly  northern  provincialisms 
and  partly  technical  words.  The  word  (iii.  3)  hajetha  ("Nivine  was 
a  great  town  " )  is  no  proof  of  a  late  origin ;  it  may  have  been  inserted 
into  a  copy  of  the  book  by  the  editor  (Esdras?)  in  whose  time  Ninive 
no  longer  existed,  as  his  readers  could  not  know  the  great  city.  The 


days  and  three  nights.  The  men  of  Ninive  shall  rise  in  judgment  with 
this  generation,  and  shall  condemn  it,  because  they  did  penance  at  the 
preaching  of  Jonas;  and  behold  a  greater  than  Jonas  hero.  The 
queen  of  the  south  shall  rise  in  judgment  with  this  generation,  and 
shall  condemn  it,  because  she  came  from  the  ends  of  the  earth  to  hear 
the  wisdom  of  Solomon,  and  behold  a  greater  than  Solomon  here."  If 
Solomon  and  the  Queen  of  Saba  were  historical  personages,  Jonas,  who 
preached  to  Ninive,  is  so  no  less. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    309 

prayer  in  ii.  3-10  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  psalms,  but  this  is 
no  evidence  of  a  very  late  origin;  its  contents  are  quite  as  well  suited 
to  an  earlier  period,  and  the  Temple  ( verses  5  and  8 )  need  not  necessar^y 
be  the  second. 

\ 
17.  AMOS1 

(9  chapters) 

1.  Date.    Amos  probably  lived  not  long  after  Jonas,  for  in 
the  introduction  to  his  book  the   Kings   Ozias  of  Juda   and 
Jeroboam  II  of  Samaria  are  mentioned.     He  is-  the  oldest  of 
the  prophets  whose  utterances  have  been  preserved  in  writing. 

2.  Mission.     Amos  was  a  shepherd  and  caretaker  of  a  syca- 
more plantation  at  Thekne,  near  Bethlehem.    God  called  him  to 
go  as  a  prophet  to  the  northern  kingdom,  and  after  fulfilling  his 
mission  he  returned  home  and  resumed  his  previous  occupation. 
He  seems  himself  to  have  written  down  the  prophecies  he  had 
uttered  as  an  everlasting  testimony  against  Israel,  that  had  not 
listened  to  his  warnings. 

His  time  of  activity  appears  not  to  have  been  long,  as  in  i.  1  we  read 
that  he  entered  on  his  mission  two  years  before  the  earthquake.  We 
do  not  know  what  earthquake  this  was.  He  probably  spoke  most  of 
his  prophecies  at  Bethel,  the  center  of  the  idolatrous  worship,  for  the 
high  priest  Amasias  of  Bethel  denounced  him  to  the  king  (vii.  10). 

3.  Contents.     The  prophet  inveighs  against  idolatrous  wor- 
ship and  the  moral  corruption  connected  with  it,  which  showed 
itself  in  excessive  luxury,  partiality  in  the  administration  of 
justice,  and  oppression  of  the  poor.     The  whole  kingdom  is 
threatened  with  destruction  and  the  people  with  exile.     Such 
freedom  of  speech  on  the  part  of  a  man  of  the  lower  classes 
was  intolerable  to  king,  priests  and  people  alike,  and  Amos 
was  driven  out  of  the  country. 

4.  Divisions.    Chapters  i.  and  ii.,  God's  chastisement  for  sin 
is  coming  upon  all  the  nations  of  Western  Asia,    iii.-vi.   It  will 
fall  most  heavily  upon  Samaria,    vii.— ix.  Vision  of  the  punish- 
ment to  be  inflicted  upon  Samaria. 

Chapter  i.  The  neighboring  nations  have  sinned  and  are  being 
punished  by  God  (through  the  agency  of  the  advancing  Assyrians). 

=  carrier  of  burdens. 


310    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

ii.  Samaria,  although  belonging  to  God's  people,  has  sinned  yet  more, 
and  can  least  of  all  be  spared,  iii.  God  causes  the  prophets  to  announce 
the  punishment  before  He  inflicts  it;  Samaria  will  be  destroyed  like 
a  beast  torn  by  a  lion,  so  that  nothing  remains  of  it  but  a  few  little 
bones,  iv.  The  punishments  inflicted  hitherto  have  been  fruitless,  de- 
struction is  now  imminent,  v.  Song  of  mourning  over  Samaria;  it 
could  only  be  saved  by  penance,  vi.  The  rich  and  powerful  in  Samaria 
as  in  Juda  are  chiefly  to  blame  for  the  decay  of  morality,  therefore  the 
heaviest  chastisement  shall  fall  upon  them.  vii.  Three  visions,  (a) 
and  (6),  show  that  God  has  often  been  induced  by  prayer  to  spare  His 
people,  but  now  (c)  all  forbearance  is  over.  The  idolatrous  priest, 
Amasias,  accused  Amos  before  the  king,  and  received  a  terrible  prophecy 
concerning  his  own  family;  his  wife  and  children  were  to  perish,  his 
property  should  belong  to  others,  he  himself  should  die  in  a  heathen 
land  and  the  whole  nation  go  into  captivity,  viii.  Vision  of  the  gather- 
ing in  of  the  fruit,  meaning  that  Samaria  is  ripe  for  destruction,  ix. 
The  Samaritans,  on  account  of  their  idolatry,  are  no  better  than  the 
heathen,  but  the  kingdom  of  God  will  not  pass  away,  and  salvation 
will  nevertheless  come  through  the  Messias. 

Strack,  Kautzsch  and  Cornill  assign  the  book  to  the  year  760.  The 
genuineness  of  some  of  the  verses,  which  are  thought  to  disturb  the 
connection  of  ideas,  has  been  questioned,  but  without  sufficient  reason 
(Cornill). 


18.    JOEL1 
(4  chapters  in  Septuagint,  3  in  Vulgate) 

1.  Joel,  son  of  Phatuel,  seems  to  have  labored  in  the  southern 
kingdom,  for  he  pays  no  attention  to  Samaria,  but  mentions 
as  enemies  of  God's  people  the  Phoenicians  and  Philistines  (iii.  4) 
and  the  Egyptians  and  Edomites  (iii.  19).    We  know  (II  Chron. 
xxvi.  6-8)  that  King  Ozias  of  Juda  fought  successfully  against 
such  enemies.     The  time  of  Joel's  activity  is  not  stated  in  his 
book,  but  it  must  have  been  during  the  reign  of  Ozias,  and  even 
at  the  beginning  of  it,  considerably  before  760,  for  the  prophet 
does  not  allude  to  the  Assyrians  who,  towards  the  close  of  Ozias' 
reign,  penetrated  as  far  as  Palestine  and  made  Samaria  tributary 
to  them  (IV  Kings  xv.  19). 

2.  Contents.    After  a  short  introduction,  the  prophet  speaks 
of  a  devastation  of  the  Holy  Land  by  locusts. 

i.    Palestine  has  suffered  terribly  again  and  again  from  locusts,     il. 
This  plague  is  a  foreshadowing  of  heavy  chastisement,  but  if  the  people 


=  the  Lord  is  God. 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDEKED  SINGLY    311 

turn  to  God  and  do  penance,  blessings  may  come  instead  of  curses,  iii. 
God's  justice  threatens  those  only  who  do  not  believe;  redemption  shall 
come  to  the  righteous.1 

3.  Interpretation.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the  prophet  was 
speaking  of  a  real  plague  of  locusts  or  whether  he  spoke  of 
locusts  only  as  a  type  of  hostile  armies.  Most  of  the  later  com- 
mentators prefer  the  literal  explanation,  but  the  old  Eabbis 
and  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  adopt  the  figurative  interpretation. 
They  may  very  well  Be  united  and  we  may  suppose  that  Joel 
saw  how  the  Holy  Land  was  devastated  by  invasions  of  locusts 
in  his  day,  and  so  he  referred  to  them,  when  foretelling  to  the 
people  how  the  land  would  be  laid  waste  by  foreign  hosts,  unless 
Israel  returned  to  its  God. 

Modern  critics  assign  a  late  date  to  this  book.  According  to 
Cornill  (172),  the  year  586  (or  588)  is  the  terminus  a  quo,  as  it  was 
only  from  this  time  onward  that  God  had  cause  to  expostulate  with 
the  enemies  of  His  people.  Cornill  says :  "  We  must  go  far  beyond 
the  year  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  for  the  capital  is  inhabited, 
the  Temple  built,  and  the  worship  in  it  organized.  This  cannot  have 
been  the  case  until  after  the  return  from  Captivity.  As  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  ( ?)  are  mentioned  in  ii.  9,  we  are  brought  to  the  time  of 
Nehemias.  Moreover,  Joel  knows  nothing  of  moral  decadence,  he  finds 
fault  with  nothing  [but  cf.  ii.  12,  etc.],  to  him  the  Jews  are  infinitely 
exalted  above  the  heathen.  .  .  .  Absolutely  convincing  is  his  quotation 
from  Malachias  iii.  23  [Vulg.  iv.  4]  regarding  the  great  and  terrible 
day  of  Judgment."  But  may  not  Malachias  have  borrowed  from 
Joel?  There  is  nothing  to  oblige  us  to  relegate  the  book  to  the  period 
following  the  Captivity  and  thus  to  adopt  a  view  opposed  to  that  of  the 
Canon  and  to  Jewish  tradition.  The  simple  sequence  of  thought,  suited 
to  every  period  of  Jewish  history,  is  this:  The  Holy  Land  will  be  laid 
waste  by  the  Gentiles  (Assyrians,  Babylonians,  Persians,  Greeks, 
Romans,  Mahometans)  as  a  district  is  eaten  up  by  locusts.  However 
terrible  the  visitation  may  be  (though  it  might  be  averted  if  Israel 
did  penance),  it  cannot  put  an  end  to  the  kingdom  of  God.  The 
future  belongs  to  the  faithful,  whilst  unbelievers  sooner  or  later  must 
appear  before  God's  tribunal,  especially  at  the  Last  Judgment  at  the 
end  of  time. 


1  The  words  in  iii.  1,  cum  convertero  capiivitatem  Juda  et  Jerusalem, 
which  are  translated  "I  shall  bring  back  the  captivity  of  Juda  and 
Jerusalem,"  contain  no  reference  to  the  Captivity  of  the  Jews,  but  mean, 
according  to  the  original,  "  I  shall  change  the  destiny."  So  translates 
also  Kautzsch. 


312    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

19.     ABDIAS1 
(21  verses) 

1.  Abdias  has  left  on  record  a  short  prophecy  uttered  against 
Edom  or  Idumsea,  a  country  near  to  the  Israelites,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  which  were  akin  to  them  in  race.     He  certainly  lived 
in  the  southern  kingdom,  as  he  speaks  of  Jerusalem  and  Sion. 

Edom  is  a  small  country,  and  its  inhabitants,  the  descendants  of 
Esau,  are  few  in  number,  but  they  are  proud,  and  filled  with  hatred 
of  Juda.  But  Juda,  being  the  kingdom  and  people  of  God,  will  triumph, 
and  Edom,  like  all  other  enemies,  will  be  brought  low. 

2.  Date.     The  contents  of  the  book  seem  to  indicate  that  at 
the  time  of  the  Babylonian  invasion  the  Edomites  made  common 
cause  with  the  enemies  of  Israel,  and  openly  showed  their  joy 
at  its  misfortunes.     This  is  mentioned  as  a  fact  in  other  places 
(e.  g.  Ezech.  xxv.  12;  Ps.  cxxxvi.  7).    If  this  surmise  is  correct, 
the  prophet  must  have  lived  about  the  year  600,  in  the  time  of 
Jeremias.     The  position  of  the  book  in  the  canon  points  to  an 
earlier  date,  and  in  v.  18  there  is  an  allusion  to  the  house  of 
Joseph,  i.  e.  to  t.ie  kingdom  of  Samaria,  that  was  destroyed  in 
722.2     Although  Abdias  seems   (verses  1-9)   to  have  borrowed 
passages  from  Jeremias  xlix.  7,  etc.,  it  is  more  probable  that  Jere- 
mias had  the  earlier  prophecy  in  mind  when  he  wrote.3    If  it  be 
urged  that  before  the  time  of  Nabuchodonosor  there  was  never 
a  day  of  ruin  and  desolation  for  Juda,  such  as  Abdias  describes 
(v.  13),  we  may  reply  that  great  distress  fell  upon  Juda  in  the 
reign  oi  King  Joram  (889-884)  when  the  Arabs  ai:  1  Philistines 
invaded  the  country,  took  the  royal  family  prisoners,  and  plun- 
dered the  royal  treasury  (II  Chron.  xxi,  16,  etc.).     Abdias  is 
referring  to  this  event;   and  we  may  conclude  that  he  lived  at 
about  the  same  time  as  Joel  (before  760),  as  the  two  prophets 


1  rn^j?  =  worshiper  of  Yahweh. 

2  This  verse  alone  is  enough  to  prove  the  antiquity  of  the  book: 
"The  house  of  Jacob  shall  be  a  fire,  and  the  house  of  Joseph  a  flame, 
and  the  house  of  Esau  stubble,  and  they  .  .  .  shall  devour  them,  and 
there  shall  1  3  no  remains  of  the  house  of  Esau." 

8  In  Abdias  the  speech  is  connected,  whereas  in  Jeremias  parts  of  it 
seem  to  be  quoted  from  memory. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    313 

in  some  places  use  almost  the  same  expressions.     There  is  no 
trace  in  the  language  of  a  later  origin. 

A.  Condamin,  S.J.,  in  the  Revue  liblique  (1900,  ii.  261)  proves  from 
the  structure  of  the  strophes  that  the  whole  of  Abdias  is  older  than 
Jeremias. 

20.     OSEE1 
(14  chapters) 

1.  Osee  was  the  son  of  Beeri,  of  whom  we  know  nothing.    His 
birthplace  is  uncertain,  and  it  is  impossible  to  decide  positively 
whether  he  belonged  to  the  northern  or  the  southern  kingdom. 
As,  however,  he  speaks  of  Juda  only  incidentally,  and  refers 
constantly  to  the  northern  kingdom  and  its  circumstances  and 
alludes  to  its  ruler  as  "our  king"  (vii.  5),  he  must  have  lived 
in  the  kingdom  of  Samaria. 

2.  Date.    According  to  the  heading  (i.  1),  he  was  a  contem- 
porary of  Isaias,  who  was  active  in  the  southern  kingdom.    He 
must,  however,  have  been  older  than  Isaias,  as  he  was  active  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Ozias,  and  Isaias  did  not  receive  his  call  until 
the  last  year  cf  that  reign.    We  may  assume  that  Osee's  activity 
lasted  from  about  780  t:>  720. 

3.  Contents.    The  northern  kingdom  is  going  to  ruin.    Israel 
is  like  an  adulteress  who  deserves  rejection. 


rs  i.— iii.  are  a  narrative.  Osee  tells  of  his  domestic  misery; 
his-  wife  is  frequently  false  to  him.  This  marriage  was  a  type  of  God's 
relation  towards  His  people,  iv.-xiv.  A  collection  of  disconnected 
speeches,  strung  together,  depict  the  anarchical  condition  of  the  northern 
kingdom.  Like  Amos,  the  prophet  rebukes  the  idolatry,  immorality 
and  deceit  prevalent  among  all  classes.  These  disorders  are  leading  to 
the  downfall  of  the  State,  upon  which  God  has  already  determined.  Re- 
liance is  placed  upon  Egypt  and  Assyria  (xii.  1),  but  no  one  notices 
that  the  heathen  are  bringing  about  the  destruction  of  Israel,  —  a  just 
punishment  for  yielding  to  their  vices.  By  way  of  consolation  a  glance 
into  the  Messianic  future  is  vouchsafed,  in  order  that  those  of  the  people 
who  are  pious  and  willing  to  do  penance  may  find  encouragement.  In 
conclusion  (xiv.  5,  6,  10),  God  says:  "I  will  heal  their  breaches,  I  will 
love  them  freely.  .  .  .  Israel  shall  spring  up  as  the  lily,  and  his  root  shall 
shoot  forth.  .  .  .  Who  is  wise,  and  he  shall  understand  these  things? 
prudent,  and  he  shall  know  these  things?  For  the  ways  of  the  Lord 

1  jysnn,  helper. 


314    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

are  right,  and  the  just  shall  walk  in  them;    but  the  transgressors  shall 
fall  in  them." 

Wellhausen  (Isr.  u.  jtid.  Gesch.,  80)  declares  that  the  prophet  was 
mistaken,  and  that  Israel  vanished  from  the  face  of  the  earth.  This 
is  true  of  the  kingdom  of  Samaria,  but  not  of  the  whole  nation,  and 
the  two  kingdoms  were  intimately  connected. 

4.  Symbolical  Marriage.  The  prophet's  marriage,  described 
in  the  early  chapters,  is  variously  explained.  The  question 
whether  he  is  speaking  of  real  occurrences  or  relating  a  parable, 
cannot  be  decided.  Most  of  the  Fathers  and  older  commentators 
take  the  former  alternative. 


21.     MlCHEAS  * 
(7  chapters) 

1.  Micheas,  born  in  Moresheth  of  the  tribe  of  Juda,  prophesied 
under  Joatham,  Achaz  and  Ezechias  until  about  the  time  of  the 
destruction  of  the  northern  kingdom.    He  was  therefore  a  con- 
temporary of  Isaias.     His  prophecies  were  addressed  to  both 
kingdoms,  but  especially  to  the  southern. 

2.  Contents.     The  prophecies  of  Micheas  bear  much  likeness 
to  those  of  Isaias.    They  can  be  divided  into  three  sections,  each 
ending  with  a  Messianic  promise. 

I.  (Chapters  i.  and  ii.)     God  is  on  the  point  of  punishing  His  people 
for  their  disloyalty.    The  chastisement  is  to  fall  first  upon  the  northern 
kingdom,  and  the  southern  may  take  warning  from  it. 

II.  (Chapters   iii.-v.)      The  kingdom  of  Juda  will   fare  no  better; 
Sion  will  be  taken  and  destroyed;    but  still  God's  kingdom  will  not 
perish ;   a  glorious  time  will  follow  a  ruler  who  proceeds  from  Bethlehem, 
but  who  has  been  from  eternity. 

III.  (Chapters  vi.  and  vii.)     Punishment  must  inevitably  fall  upon 
Israel   because   of   the   wickedness   of   the   people,    who    cannot    fail   to 
recognize  this  fact.     But  the  consequence  of  the  punishment  need  not 
be  the  final  rejection  of  Israel;    a  peaceful  future  may  and  must  be 
anticipated.     The   book   ends   with  a   touching   prayer   offered   by  the 
prophet  for  his  people.2 


,  who  is  like  the  Lord.     Septuagint, 
2  "  Who  is  a  God  like  to  thee,  who  takest  away  iniquity,  and  passest 
by  the  sin  of  the  remnant  of  thy  inheritance?    he  will  send  his  fury  in 
no  more,  because  he  delighteth  in  mercy.     He  will  turn  again,  and  have 
mercy  on  us;    he  will  put  away  our  iniquities;    and  he  will  cast  all 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDEEED  SINGLY    315 

The  Book  of  Micheas  is  probably  a  collection  of  the  essential 
portions  of  the  prophecies  uttered  by  him  at  various  times. 

Ewald,  Stade  and  Cornill  try  to  prove  that  several  portions  of 
Micheas  are  not  authentic,  but  a  very  thorough  defense  of  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  book  is  contained  in  a  work  by  V.  Ryssel,  Untersuchungen 
uber  Text,  etc.,  des  Micha,  Leipzig,  1887. 

22.    ISAIAS  * 
(66  chapters) 

1.  Isaias.     The  prophet  who  bore  this  name  lived  in  the 
kingdom  of  Juda,  and  prophesied  during  the  reigns  of  Ozias, 
Joatham,  Achaz  and  Ezechias.     His  father,  Amos,  is  not  to  be 
identified  with  the  prophet  of  that  name.    Isaias  was  called  by 
God  about  757  to  undertake  his  special  work,  and  he  probably 
lived  until  about  680.     According  to  tradition,  King  Manasses 
had  him  sawn  asunder  (Heb.  xi.  37 ;  Justin.,  Dial.  c.  Try  ph.,  120) . 

2.  Contents.    The  Book  of  Isaias  consists  of  two  very  different 
parts :   chapters  L— xxxvii.  and  chapters  xxxviii.— Ixvi.     The  first 
part  deals  with  the  present,  the  second  with  the  future  of  Israel. 

First  part.  Chapter  i.  Words  of  rebuke  for  disloyalty  introduce  the 
prophetic  utterances,  —  the  keynote  of  the  whole  book  is  thus  struck, 
ii.-iv.  The  Messianic  future  is  indeed  in  prospect,  but  it  can  be  realized 
only  after  God's  chastisement  has  been  inflicted  upon  His  degenerate 
people,  v.  Israel  is  an  unfruitful  vineyard,  vi.  The  prophet  relates 
that,  when  he  received  his  mission,  he  learnt  from  God  that  only  a  small 
part  of  Israel  could  be  saved,  the  great  majority  must  perish,  vii.-xii. 
At  the  present  time  the  Assyrian  power  is  pressing  hard  upon  Israel, 
being  the  instrument  used  by  God  for  its  chastisement ;  but  the  Messianic 
future  will  come  nevertheless;  the  Messias  will  be  born  of  the  Virgin 
(blessed  by  God)  ;  He  will  appear  in  the  north  of  the  country  and 
found  a  new  dominion,  a  remnant  of  Israel  will  be  saved,  but  the 
power  of  the  heathen  will  be  overthrown,  xiii.-xxiii.  All  the  forces  of 
the  heathen  will  be  subjugated  by  the  kingdom  of  God,  which  alone 
will  last  forever.  Then  follow  twelve  prophecies  of  punishment  to  be 
inflicted  on  the  heathen  nations  (Babylonians,  Philistines,  Moabites, 
Damascenes,  Ethiopians,  Egyptians,  etc.).  Juda,  too,  as  a  kingdom 
will  suffer  chastisement,  but  will  not  perish,  for  being  God's  kingdom 
it  is  everlasting,  xxiv.-xxvii.  The  world  will  finally  be  judged,  and 

our  sins  into  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Thou  wilt  perform  the  truth  to 
Jacob,  the  mercy  to  Abraham;  which  thou  hast  sworn  to  our  fathers 
from  the  days  of  old"  (vii.  18-20). 

(Sept.,  'Hffaias)  =  the  Lord  helpeth. 


316    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 

a  people  who  truly  worship  God  will  come  forth,  xxviii.-xxxv.  Even 
though  in  the  immediate  future  the  Assyrian  yoke  may  press  heavily 
upon  Juda,  all  the  enemies  of  God's  people  must  eventually  succumb, 
and  the  kingdom  of  God  will  prevail.  Chapters  xxvi.  and  xxxvii. 
contain  an  historical  account  of  the  invasion  of  the  Assyrians;  and 
this  concludes  the  first  part.  Chapters  xxxviii.  and  xxxix.  are  in- 
troductory to  the  second  part;  *  they  described  the  sickness  and  re- 
covery of  King  Ezechias,  as  a  type  of  the  exile  and  return  of  Israel. 
The  second  part  begins  with  chapter  xl.,  and  forms  a  closely  con- 
nected whole,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  announce  the  coming  redemp- 
tion. This  part  is  divided  into  three  sections,  each  of  nine  chapters. 
With  indescribable  exultation  the  prophet  foretells  a  threefold  salvation 
of  Israel,  i.  e.  of  God's  faithful  followers  in  general :  ( 1 )  It  shall  be 
rescued  from  Captivity,  xl.-xlviii.;  (2)  The  Saviour  will  come,  the 
Servant  of  God,  the  Messias,  xlix.-lvii.;  (3)  There  shall  be  salvation 
for  eternity,  Iviii.-lxvi.  (The  prophet  can  scarcely  find  words  in  which 
to  make  known  with  exultant  joy  the  salvation  of  the  faithful,  —  he  is 
truly  a  nabi  =  a  speaker  overpowered  by  divine  inspiration.) 

3.  Unity  of  the  Work.    The  first  part  is  a  collection  of  various 
utterances  of  the  prophet;  the  second  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  dis- 
sertation, arranged  on  a  definite  plan  and  incapable  of  division, 
which  we  can  scarcely  imagine  was  ever  proclaimed  by  mouth. 
The  whole  book  constitutes  the  consistent  work  of  a  man  who  is 
filled  with  the  spirit  of  God,  and  aims  first  at  rousing  his  people 
for  their  own  good,  and  then  at  consoling  them.    "We  may  follow 
Kaulen  and  call  the  first  part  the  Book  of  Sorrow,  and  the 
second  the  Book  of  Comfort.     We  must  therefore  believe  that 
not  only  isolated  portions  of  this  book  were  composed  by  Isaias, 
but  that  he  compiled  the  whole. 

4.  Authenticity.     The  Babylonians  are  several  times  men- 
tioned in  the  Book  of  Isaias  as  being  the  enemies  of  God's  people, 
and  even  the  name  of  Cyrus2  occurs  (xliv.  28,  xlv.  1),  as  that 

1  Chapters  xxxvi.-xxxix.  occur  also  in  IV  Kings  xviii.-xx.;    in  many 
places  the  two  passages  are  word  for  word  the  same.     The  author  of 
Kings  seems  to  have  taken  these  accounts  from  Isaias    (if  Isaias  was 
put  to  death  by  Manasses,  he  must  have  outlived  King  Sennacherib, 
xxxvii.,  xxxviii.,  who  was  murdered  in  682). 

2  Heb.,  Bhl3,  Pers.  Kosru,  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  Kurus,  born 
598.     Even  before   Cyrus  appeared  in  person,   the  Israelites   seem  to 
have   attempted   to   discover   an   etymology   for   the   name,    deriving   it 
either  from  KHJ3,  to  cut  off,  or   EhH,  to  cut  into;    so  that  Cyrus  = 
cutter,  a  characteristic  name  for  a  man  who  cut  his  way  so  remarkably 
into  the  history  of  the  world.     The  Seventy  gave  the  name  as  Kvpos. 
As  a  common  noun  Kvpos  means  supreme  power,  authority. 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    317 

of  the  deliverer  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonian  despotism. 
For  these  reasons  many  critics  have  assumed  that  the  whole  of 
the  second  part  was  the  work,  not  of  Isaias,  whose  active  life 
belongs  to  about  760  or  780,  but  of  one  or  more  later  authors, 
and  was  added  to  the  real  Book  of  Isaias.  They  maintain  that 
Isaias  could  not  have  spoken  of  the  Babylonians  as  existing 
enemies,  because  in  his  lifetime  the  power  of  Babylon  was  still 
insignificant,  and  it  did  not  come  into  conflict  with  Israel  for 
another  hundred  years.  In  the  same  way  he  could  not  possibly 
have  known  the  name  of  Cyrus.  Probably  some  Jew  about  the 
year  538  tried  to  encourage  and  console  his  people,  still  groaning 
under  the  Babylonian  yoke,  by  means  of  prophecies  directed 
against  Babylon. 

Cornill  declares  the  following  passages  not  to  be  genuine  and  to  have 
been  written  by  a  later  hand  than  Isaias*:  ii.  2-4;  xi.  10;  xii.  6;  xiii. 
2-xiv.  23;  xv.  1-xvi.  12;  xxi.  1-10  and  xxi.  11-17;  xxiii.;  xxiv.-xxvii. ; 
xxxii.  and  xxxiii.;  xxxiv.  and  xxxv. ;  xxxvi.-xxxix.,  with  some  small 
exceptions,  and  finally  xl.-lxvi.,  which  is  generally  designated  the 
Deutero-Jesaja.1  Those  who  maintain  that  the  book  is  not  authentic 
base  their  arguments  on  internal  evidence  and  on  the  presumption  that 
the  future  was  as  obscure  to  the  prophet  as  it  is  to  us.  Marti  believes 
the  whole  book  to  be  a  collection  of  speeches  and  disserations,  some  of 
which  were  composed  by  Isaias.  Similar  views  are  expressed  in  Guthe's 
Bibellexikon;  he  speaks  of  there  being  several  constituent  parts  of  the 
book,  varying  in  age  from  the  eighth  to  the  fourth,  or  even  the  third 
century. 

However,  for  a  man  who  believes  in  the  existence  of  God  and 
the  possibility  of  an  enlightenment  of  the  human  intellect  by 
the  spirit  of  God,  there  appears  to  be  no  reason  why  the  book 
should  not  really  have  been  composed  by  Isaias,  whose  mission 
it  was  to  announce  the  triumph  of  the  faithful  and  of  God's 
kingdom  over  the  unbelievers  and  the  powers  of  this  world.  His 
glance  penetrated  far  beyond  his  immediate  surroundings,  be- 
yond Juda  and  Assyria. 

1  By  the  "  servant  of  God  "  in  chapters  xlix.-lvii.  E.  Sellin  formerly 
understood  Zorobabel,  but  afterwards  Jojachin  ( Jechonias)  ;  Smend, 
Konig,  Giesebrecht,  Marti  and  Budde  think  it  is  a  collective  name, 
denoting  the  people  of  Israel.  Bertholet  and  Duhm,  on  the  strength 
of  Isaias  1.  4  ( "  The  Lord  hath  given  me  a  learned  tongue  " ) ,  think 
some  teacher  of  the  Thora  is  meant.  Rothstein  declares  the  expression 
not  to  be  collective,  and  says  that  it  refers  to  an  individual. 


318    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Tradition  is  in  favor  of  the  authenticity  of  the  book,  and  knows 
nothing  of  a  second  Isaias,  whilst  Holy  Scripture  itself  bears  testimony 
to  it.1  Internal  evidence,  too,  points  to  its  having  been  composed  before 
the  Captivity.  The  people  are  repeatedly  warned  against  idolatry,  and 
this  is  declared  to  be  the  reason  for  God's  chastisement.  Such  state- 
ments would  be  unnecessary  after  the  Captivity.  In  chapters  Ivi.  and 
Ivii.  the  circumstances  preceding  it  are  so  vividly  described  that  many 
commentators  feel  constrained  to  ascribe  these  passages  to  a  "  Pseudo- 
jesaja,"  living  at  that  period. 


PROPHETS    LIVING    BETWEEN    THE    DOWNFALL    OF    THE 
NORTHERN  AND  THAT  OF  THE   SOUTHERN  KINGDOM 

23.    NAHUM2 
(3  chapters) 

1.  Nahumfs  Personality.    This  prophet,  who,  like  Jonas,  had 
to  prophesy  the  destruction  of  Ninive  and  Assyria,  was  a  native 
of  Elcush,  a  village  in  Galilee  (Hieron.,  Comm.  in  1.  Nahum). 
He  probably  lived  in  the  Holy  Land,  although  his  countrymen 
were  in  captivity  in  Assyria,  for  he  mentions  places  in  Palestine, 
especially  Basan,  Carmel  and  Lebanon  (i.  4). 

In  the  first  part  of  the  third  volume  of  Beitrdge  zwr  Assyriologie 
by  Delitzsch  and  Haupt  (Leipzig,  1895,  pp.  87-188)  many  reasons  are 
brought  forward  in  support  of  the  theory  that  Nahum  was  an  Israelite 
exile,  a  native  of  some  other  Elcush  or  Alcush  near  Ninive. 

2.  Subject  of  the  Boole.    Ninive's  destruction. 

i.  God  has  determined  that  Ninive  and  the  kingdom  of  Assyria  shall 
perish,  ii.  This  destruction  is  effected  by  a  hostile  army,  which  over- 
runs the  city  and  the  kingdom,  and  puts  an  end  to  the  latter,  iii.  The 
destruction  is  inevitable,  and  fully  justified. 

3.  Date.     Nahum  knows  that  the  city  of  No-Ammon,3  i.  e. 
Thebes  in  Upper  Egypt,  has  been  destroyed,  and  reproaches  the 

1  "  [God]  purified  them  by  the  hand  of  Isaias,  the  holy  prophet  .  .  . 
with  a  great  spirit  he  ...  comforted  the  mourners  in  Sion.    He  showed 
what  should  come  to  pass  forever,  and  secret  things  before  they  came  " 
(Eoclus.  xlviii.  23-28). 

2  DtflJ  =  comforter  or  comfort.     The  name  is  very  suitable  to  this 
prophet,  who  comforted  God's  people  when  they  were  in  fear  of  the 
cruel  Assyrians. 

8  The  Latin  text  reads  Alexandria,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
Thebes  is  meant.  Cf.  the  commentaries. 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDEBED  SINGLY    319 

Assyrians  for  having  devastated  it  (iii.  8).  Eecent  investigations 
in  Assyria  show  that  King  Assurbanipal,  who  came  to  the  throne 
in  668.,  took  and  plundered  this  city  about  662.  The  prophet 
refers  to  this  event  as  something  fresh  in  men's  remembrance, 
and  therefore  he  seems  to  have  been  prominent  soon  after  Assur- 
banipal's  campaign,  perhaps  about  660.  His  prophetic  threats 
Were  fulfilled  in  606.1 

The  authenticity  of  this  work,  which  is  full  of  the  loftiest  inspira- 
tion, is  almost  universally  acknowledged.  The  exalted  language  and  the 
heartfelt  joy  that  the  people  of  God  will  soon  have  nothing  more  to  fear 
from  the  cruel  Assyrians,  are  recognized  even  by  rationalists  as  tokens 
of  authenticity. 

Happel,  Das  Buch  d.  Proph.  Nahum,  1902,  thinks  that  the  book 
was  not  written  until  after  the  Captivity,  and  that  Ninive  is  a  fictitious 
name  for  the  Syrian  empire  under  Antiochus  IV,  Epiphanes. 


24.     SOPHONIAS 2 
(3  chapters) 

1.  Personality  of  SopJionias.    The  genealogy  of  this  prophet 
is  given  at  the  beginning  of  his  book,  which  is  not  done  in  the 
case  of  any  other  prophet.    He  seems  to  have  been  a  descendant 
of  Ezechias,  and  this  must  have  been  the  well-known  king  of 
that  name,  for  no  other  reason  can  be  discovered  for  tracing  his 
genealogy.     It  is  in  keeping  with  his  high  rank  that  he  ad- 
dresses his  prophecy  especially  to  the  princes  and  king's  sons 
(i.  8). 

2.  Date.     According  to  the  heading  of  the  book,  he  lived 
under  King  Josias   (639-608).     He  must  have  been  active  in 

1  The  Medes,  in  alliance  with  the  Scythians,  put  an  end  to  the  king- 
dom of  Assyria,  according  to  the  ordinary  reckoning  in   625,  but  ac- 
cording to  more  recent  historians  in  606.    Kaulen  gives  the  date  as  606, 
so  do  Sayce  ("  Fresh  Light  from  Ancient  Monuments,"  132)  and  H.  Winck- 
ler.     The  latter  mentions  an  inscription  discovered  in  Babylon  in  1894, 
which  refers  to  Nabonaid,  the  last  king  of  Babylon  (555-538),  and  says 
that  the  king  of  the  Medes  and  Scythians  had  conquered  Assyria,  and 
thus  had  helped  the  Babylonian  king  Nabopolassar    (626-606)    out  of 
his  difficulties.     We  must  therefore  abandon  the  theory  that  the  allied 
armies  of  the  Medes  and  Babylonians  put  an  end  to  the  Assyrian  king- 
dom,  and  believe   that  the  conquest  was  effected  by  the   Medes   and 
Scythians. 

2  iT:i§y  =  the  Lord's  protection. 


320    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

the  early  part  of  the  reign,  because  he  complains  bitterly  of  the 
prevalence  of  idolatry  in  Juda,  and  as  Josias  put  it  down  with 
a  strong  hand  this  complaint  would  have  been  unnecessary  later 
on.  The  allusion  to  the  Assyrians  as  still  dangerous  (ii.  13,  etc.) 
and  the  absence  of  all  mention  of  the  Babylonians  also  are  in 
agreement  with  the  beginning  of  Josias'  reign. 

3.  Contents.  Announcement  of  God's  just  vengeance  being 
about  to  fall  on  Jews  and  Gentiles. 

i.  God  is  ruler  and  judge  of  all  mankind.  Now,  in  our  day,  He  is 
judging  Juda  (the  prophet  is  undoubtedly  referring  to  the  invasion  of 
the  Babylonians,  though  he  does  not  speak  of  these  enemies  by  name), 
ii.  The  Gentiles  are  subject  to  the  same  God  as  the  Israelites  and  will 
be  punished  for*  their  cruelty  ibo  them.  All  the  empires  of  the  heathen 
will  perish,  and  mighty  Assyria  in  particular  will  soon  be  cast  down, 
iii.  Jerusalem  should  learn  from  this,  and  submit  loyally  to  God.  But 
every  warning  is  in  vain;  and  so  God's  vengeance  will  light  upon  it, 
whilst  the  heathen  nations  will  turn  to  the  true  God.  There  is,  how- 
ever, still  a  prospect  of  mercy  for  Jerusalem,  if  Israel  will  be  converted. 

According  to  Cornill,  chapter  ii.  shows  a  few  traces  of  a  later  hand, 
and  iii.  a  great  many,  and  the  concluding  portion  (verses  14-20),  in 
which  Israel  is  called  upon  to  rejoice,  is  particularly  suspicious.  This 
appeal  is,  however,  quite  in  harmony  with  the  preceding  promise  that  a 
remnant  of  Israel  shall  be  saved  (verses  10-13). 


25.   HABAKUK,  OR  HABAOUC1 

(3  chapters) 

1.  Contents.  God  sends  grievous  punishments  upon  Juda 
through  the  Babylonians,  who  will  one  day  in  their  turn  be 
exterminated  by  Him  because  of  their  rapacity. 

The  book  begins  (chapter  i.)  with  laments  over  the  wickedness  pre- 
vailing in  Juda,  and  the  long  delay  in  God's  interference.  God  declares 
that  chastisement  will  shortly  be  inflicted  through  the  Chaldeans  (Baby- 
lonians), who  will  cause  terrible  suffering,  acting  as  His  instruments. 
The  prophet  is  filled  with  horror,  and  fears  the  worst  for  God's  people 
and  kingdom,  which  is  not  to  be  subjugated  by  the  godless  heathen.  He 
is  ordered  (chapter  ii.)  to  write  down  a  prophecy,  the  fulfillment  of 
which  is  still  far  in  the  future,  so  that  the  faithful  may  read  it  and  be 
comforted.  It  states  that  the  idolatrous  Chaldeans  will  in  their  turn 
fall  a  prey  to  others,  and  the  faithful  shall  be  saved.  All  merely 
earthly  greatness  is  to  vanish  from  the  kingdom  of  God.  The  prophet 


1  p*P?i?> 
tuagint,  'A 


from  p?n,  to  grasp,  fold  =  he  that  foldeth  the  hands.     Sep- 


THE  SACEED  BOOKS  CONSIDEEED  SINGLY     321 

is  (chapter  iii.)  astonished  and  alarmed  at  these  communications,  but 
then  he  extols  God  in  a  magnificent  song  of  praise,  as  being  the  almighty 
Judge  who  guides  the  course  of  events  for  men,  destroys  the  godless,  in 
spite  of  their  apparent  prosperity,  and  saves  His  own  people.  Cornill 
and  others  deny  the  authenticity  of  chapter  ii.  9-20  and  of  the  whole  of 
chapter  iii.,  but  they  are  indispensable  to  a  comprehension  of  the  whole! 
Happel  thinks  the  book  is  an  apocalypse  belonging  to  the  period  after 
the  Captivity.  (Cf.  Nahum,  p.  318.) 

2.  Date.    No  definite  statement  occurs  in  the  book  as  to  the 
time  of  this  prophet's  activity;  we  must  therefore  have  recourse 
to  its  contents  and  try  to  obtain  some  chronological  inferences 
from  them.    We  find :  (a)  that  Juda  was  in  a  state  of  disloyalty 
to  God;  (&)  that  the  Chaldean  power  already  existed,  but  (c) 
Juda  had  no  fear  regarding  it.     These  indications  point  to  the 
rise  of  the  Babylonian  Empire,  625;    and  Habakuk  may  have 
been  a  contemporary  of  Jeremias,  and  have  labored  in  the  early 
years  of  King  Joakim's  reign.1 

It  is  possible  that  he  was  active  before  Sophonias  and  Jeremias,  for 
he  speaks  of  the  Chaldeans  as  still  an  almost  unknown  nation ;  we  should 
then  have  to  believe  that  he  thought  of  them  still  as  the  race  mentioned 
in  Job.  i.  17,  of  no  great  political  importance.  The  place  of  the  book  in 
the  canon  suggests,  however,  that  it  is  of  later  origin. 

3.  Personality  of  Hdbalcuk.     The  history  of  his  life  is  un- 
known, nor  is  it  certain  whether  this  prophet  is  identical  with 
the  Habakuk  who,  according  to  Daniel  xiv.,  was  so  miraculously 
carried  from  Palestine  to  Babylon.2     Several  of  the  Fathers 
identify  them,  but  in  this  case  Habakuk  must  have  appeared  only 
a  short  time  before  the  Captivity  and  have  lived  throughout  its 
duration,  thus  reaching  a  very  great  age. 

1  Kaulen  and   Comely  assign   the  beginning,  of  his   activity  to  the 
reign  of  King  Manasses,  because  the  news  of  the  Chaldean  power  still 
seemed  wonderful  (i.  5).    According  to  Caspari  the  book  was  written  be- 
tween 626  and  605.     Cornill  dates  it  after  605. 

2  Kaulen  thinks  they  were  different  persons,  and  that  some  confusion 
was  made  by  the  Seventy,  who  call  both  Ambakum.     Comely  takes  the. 
same  view. 


322    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

26.    JEREMIAS  * 
(52  chapters) 

1.  Personality.  We  can  derive  a  fairly  full  account  of  this 
prophet  from  his  book,  which,  in  addition  to  his  prophecies, 
contains  many  details  as  to  his  life. 

Jeremias  was  born  at  Anathoth,  one  of  the  priests'  cities,  north  of 
Jerusalem.  His  father  was  a  priest  named  Helcias.  In  the  thirteenth 
year  of  King  Josias  (about  626)  the  first  divine  communication  was 
made  to  the  young  man  in  the  words :  "  Before  thou  earnest  forth  out 
of  the  womb,  I  sanctified  thee  and  made  thee  a  prophet  unto  the  nations," 
i.  e.  against  the  heathen  who  were  attacking  the  kingdom  of  Juda,  and 
still  more  against  the  heathenish  minded  Jews  themselves.  Jeremias  was 
afraid  on  receiving  this  communication,  and  pleaded  that  he  was  too 
young  for  the  task,  but  in  vain.  For  a  generation  and  a  half  he  had  to 
reproach  the  Jews,  mostly  to  no  purpose,  for  their  sinful  folly,  announce 
the  destruction  of  the  holy  city  and  the  Temple,  and  with  his  own  eyes 
behold  it,  and  then  proclaim  that  the  only  means  left  to  the  nation  of 
recovering  God's  favor  was  to  submit  humbly  to  the  heathen,  who  were 
commissioned  by  God  to  chastise  them. 

Although  Jeremias  undertook  his  difficult  task  with  reluctance,  he 
performed  it  most  faithfully  in  spite  of  all  obstacles.  His  chief  oppo- 
nents were  the  false  prophets  who,  in  answer  to  his  threats  of  punish- 
ment, reminded  the  people  of  God's  mighty  protection  in  the  past,  of 
Israel's  high  destiny  and  of  the  impossibility  of  God's  abandoning  His 
people.  Jeremias  had  to  undergo  much  suffering  and  persecution. 

Under  the  pious  king  Josias  his  lot  was  endurable,  but  after  Josias 
fell  in  battle  in  608,  the  hated  preacher  of  truth  had  to  encounter  open 
hostility.  Joakim  disliked  him,  and  when  the  Babylonians  first  invaded 
the  country  in  605,  and  Jeremias  wrote  down  the  prophecies  of  the  past 
twenty  years  and  caused  his  disciple  Baruch  to  read  them  in  the  Temple 
to  convince  men  of  their  truth,  the  king  gave  orders  that  Jeremias  should 
be  imprisoned  and  his  writings  burnt.  The  prophet  escaped,  and  wrote 
out  his  prophecies  again,  adding  to  them  a  denunciation  of  Joakim. 
Soon  after  the  king  rebelled  against  the  Babylonians,  and  fresh  misfor- 
tunes fell  upon  Juda.  Joakim  died,  and  so  he  did  not  suffer  in  his  own 
person  the  vengeance  of  the  Babylonians,  but  the  new  king  Jechonias,  who 
with  part  of  the  people  was  carried  off  into  exile  at  Babylon,  and  Nabu- 
chodonosor  made  the  weak  and  incapable  Sedecias  king.  During  his  reign 
Jeremias  wrote  to  those  already  in  exile,  comforting  them  and  exhort- 
ing them  for  the  present  to  submit  to  the  Babylonian  bondage,  which 
would  end  in  seventy  years  (chapter  xxix.).  He  warned  King  Sedecias 
not  to  rebel  against  Babylon,  as  he  would  only  bring  down  greater  misery 
upon  the  country.  Sedecias  did  not  heed  the  warning,  but  was  induced 
to  revolt,  and  Nabuchodonosor  hurried  to  Jerusalem,  besieged  and  de- 


1    «TDY  =  appointed  by  God. 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDEKED  SINGLY    323 

stroyed  it.  The  king  was  blinded  and  dragged  into  captivity  with  the 
rest  of  his  people.  During  these  events,  Jeremias  suffered  much  at  the 
hands  of  Jewish  fanatics,  and  was  finally  imprisoned  in  the  royal  palace, 
being  released  only  after  the  Babylonians  had  entered  the  city.  They 
treated  him  with  respect,  and  at  his  own  request  left  him  in  the  country 
where  he  could  still  be  of  service  to  the  few  remaining  Jews. 

The  Babylonians  had  appointed  Godolias  (Gedalja),  a  Jew  by  birth, 
to  be  governor,  but  he  was  murdered  by  an  ambitious  man  who  was  in 
league  with  others,  and  in  their  fear  the  Jews  now  fled  to  Egypt,  forcing 
the  prophet  to  accompany  them.  On  the  way  he  uttered  his  last  proph- 
ecies. Acording  to  tradition  he  was  stoned  to  death  in  Egypt  by  his  own 
countrymen. 

2.  The  Book  of  Jeremias,  as  we  have  it,  was  plainly  composed 
not  by  Jeremias  himself,  but  by  some  one  else,  probably 'by  his 
disciple  Baruch.  It  bears  traces  of  the  period  when  it  was  com- 
piled,—  an  age  of  disorder  and  confusion.  We  cannot  find  in 
it  any  exact  chronological  arrangement,  but  the  utterances  are 
so  confused  that  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  state  with 
regard  to  each  chapter  the  date  to  which  it  belongs.  There 
is,  however,  a  method  in  the  arrangement,  for  the  various  parts 
are  ordered  so  as  to  bring  out  more  and  more  clearly  the  justice 
in  God's  dealings  with  His  faithless  people.  According  to  the 
Hebrew  and  the  Latin  texts,,  the  book  falls  into  two  chief  parts. 
The  -first  contains  addresses  to  the  Jews,  interspersed  with  his 
torical  information  (i.-xlv.)  ;  the  second  consists  of  prophecies 
concerning  heathen  nations,  Egyptians,  Philistines,  Phoenicians, 
Moabites,  Ammonites,  Edomites,  Damascenes,  Elamites  and 
finally  also  Babylon  (xlvi.-li.).  Chapter  Hi.  is  an  historical 
addition  dealing  with  the  fulfillment  of  the  prophet's  words. 

Introduction:  chapter  i.,  God's  commission  to  the  prophet.  Part  I, 
(a)  chapter  ii.-xx.,  six  admonitions  regarding  the  approaching  destruc- 
tion of  Juda,  on  account  of  its  obstinate  persistence  in  wrongdoing.  (6) 
xxi.-xxiv.,  prophecies  regarding  the  faithless  leaders  of  the  people,  (c) 
xxv.-xxix.,  Juda,  like  other  nations,  will  fall  a  prey  to  the  Babylonians. 
(d)  xxx.-xxxiii.,  nevertheless  the  people  of  God  shall  come  back  from 
slavery,  (e)  xxxiv.-xlv.,  work  and  sufferings  of  the  prophet  at  the  time 
of  the  siege  and  capture  of  Jerusalem.  Part  II,  xlvi.-li.,  prophecies  re- 
garding the  heathen,  lii.,  appendix,  history  of  the  fate  of  Sedecias,  who 
died  as  a  prisoner  in  Babylon,  and  of  that  of  his  predecessor  Jechonias, 
who  was  pardoned.  This  appendix  agrees  almost  word  for  word  with  the 
conclusion  of  the  Fourth  Book  of  Kings. 

Saint  Jerome  arranged  the  Vulgate  text  in  accordance  with  the  He- 
brew, but  from  chapter  xxv.  onward  the  Septuagint  order  is  different,  aa 


324    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE   BIBLE 

the  prophecies  regarding  foreign  nations  are  interpolated  (xxvi.-xxxii.). 
The  Septuagint  text  is  also  about  an  eighth  shorter  than  the  Hebrew  and 
the  Latin.  Both  the  Hebrew  and  the  Greek  texts  are  to  be  regarded  as 
authentic;  the  passages  omitted  by  the  Septuagint  should  be  retained  in 
accordance  with  the  Masorete  version,  and  the  Greek  arrangement  of  the 
text  is  preferable  to  the  Hebrew.1 

Streane,  "  The  Double  Text  of  Jeremiah/'  Cambridge,  1896,  considers 
the  text  used  by  the  Seventy  to  have  been  the  original,  and  prefers  the 
Greek  text  to  the  Masoretic,  which  he  believes  to  be  a  later  expansion  of 
it.  A.  Scholz,  like  Workman  and  Streane,  prefers  the  Septuagint  text, 
but  Schneedorfer,  Kaulen  and  Strack  think  the  Masoretic  text  better. 
That  both  are  considered  authentic  may  be  inferred  from  the  practice  of 
the  Eastern  and  the  Western  Church.  In  the  East  the  Septuagint,  and  in 
the  West  the  Masoretic  text  (Vulgate)  is  in  use,  just  as  in  Matt.  ii.  18 
the  Masoretic  text  is  followed,  and  in  Heb.  viii.  9  the  Alexandrian 
Septuagint. 

Rationalistic  criticism  accepts  the  prophecies  of  Jeremias  as  being  on 
the  whole  genuine,  but  it  professes  to  detect  several  later  interpolations 
on  the  strength  of  internal  evidence;  e.g.  xvii.  19,  etc.,  where  stress  is 
laid  on  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  appears  to  the  critics  to  belong  to 
the  time  of  Nehemias,  and  1.  51,  the  prophecy  against  Babylon,  that  re- 
sembles the  "  Deuterojesaja "  and  earlier  passages  in  Jeremias,  but  is 
out  of  place  where  it  stands,  seems  to  be  the  work  of  a  later  hand.  But 
if  the  commandment  about  the  Sabbath  is  older  than  Jeremias  (Ezech. 
xx.  12,  etc.),  if  there  is  no  "  Deuterojesaja,"  and  if  every  writer  is  prone 
now  and  then  to  repeat  himself,  we  have  here  no  reason  at  all  for  deny- 
ing such  passages  to  be  the  work  of  Jeremias. 


1  Arrangements  according  to  the  Septuagint.  Chapters  i.-xxv.,  as  in 
the  Hebrew  and  the  Latin  texts,  xxvi.  (xlvi.  Heb.),  prophecy  against 
Egypt;  xxvii.  (!.)>  against  Babylon;  xxviii.  (li.),  ditto;  xxix.  (xlvii.  1- 
7  and  xlix.  7-22 ) ,  against  the  Philistines,  Phoenicians  and  Edomites ;  xxx. 
(xlix.  1-5;  23-27;  28-33),  against  the  Ammonites,  Damascenes  and 
Arabs;  [the  prophecy  against  Elam,  xlix.  34-39,  is  missing]  xxxi.  (xlviii.), 
against  Moab;  xxxii.  (xxv.  15-38),  God's  indignation  against  the  wicked; 
xxxiii.  (xxvi.);  xxxiv.  (xxvii.);  xxxv.  (xxviii.),  etc.,  as  far  as  li., 
which  corresponds  to  xliv.  and  xlv.  of  the  Hebrew,  lii.  is  the  same  in 
both  the  Greek  and  the  Hebrew.  That  the  .Greek  order  is  preferable  ap- 
pears from  xxv.  14,  where,  after  the  punishment  coming  upon  Juda  has 
been  announced,  it  is  stated  that  God  will  chastise  also  the  heathen. 

The  origin  of  this  different  arrangement  of  the  text  is  obscure. 
Kaulen  thinks  that  a  short  copy  of  the  book  was  made  hastily  in  Egypt 
at  the  time  when  Jeremias  was  carried  thither,  or  when  he  died.  Cor- 
nely,  on  the  contrary,  thinks  that  the  book  existed  from  the  beginning 
in  two  different  forms,  one  of  which  gave  rise  to  the  Masoretic  text, 
and  the  other,  which  was  shorter,  was  used  by  the  Greek  translators. 
The  latter  view  is  taken  also  by  Workman,  "  The  Text  of  Jeremiah," 
Edinburgh,  1889. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    325 


27.   THE  BOOK  OF  LAMENTATIONS 

1.  Name  and  Position.    These  songs,  five  in  number,  are  called 
in  the  Hebrew  Qinoth  =  lamentations,1  in  Greek  Opfjvoi,  in  the 
Vulgate  lamentationes.     In  the  Hebrew  Bible  they  are  classed 
with  the  Ketubim,  but  in  the  Septuagint  and  the  Vulgate  they 
follow  the  Book  of  Jeremias,  as  tradition  names  him  as  their 
composer. 

Against  the  tradition  that  Jeremias  was  the  author  of  the  Lamenta- 
tions, it  is  urged  that  their  position  among  the  Ketubim  in  the  Hebrew 
canon  makes  it  plain  that  they  were  not  in  ancient  times  ascribed  to 
him,  as  otherwise  they  would  have  been  put  with  his  other  book.  Their 
position  in  the  Septuagint  cannot,  it  is  said,  have  been  the  original  one, 
as  the  language  shows  that  they  were  not  translated  by  the  same  per- 
son as  the  Book  of  Jeremias.  These  considerations,  however,  cannot 
stand  against  an  unbroken  tradition  and  the  fact  that  the  contents  of 
Lamentations  savor  greatly  of  Jeremias.  The  Septuagint  and  the  Vul- 
gate express  the  traditional  view  at  the  beginning  of  the  book,  with  the 
words :  "  And  it  came  to  pass,  after  Israel  was  carried  into  captivity, 
and  Jerusalem  was  desolate,  that  Jeremias  the  prophet  sat  weeping,  and 
mourned  with  this  lamentation." 

Its  poetical  character  probably  caused  the  book  to  be  classed  with 
Psalms  and  Proverbs  among  the  Ketubim. 

2.  Subject.    The  singer  complains  that  Jerusalem  has  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  cruel  enemies,  who  have  plundered  and  de- 
stroyed the  Holy  City.    Many  of  its  inhabitants  have  been  slain, 
others  ill  treated  and  carried  away  into  captivity.     Misery  and 
famine  prevail  in  the  country.     These   descriptions   suit  the 
period  of  the  first  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  588.    The  songs 
express  the  sorrow  felt  at  this  event. 

3.  Form.    The  first,  second,  fourth  and  fifth  songs  each  con- 
tain twenty-two  verses,  corresponding  to  the  number   of  the 
letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet.    The  third  song  has  3  X  22  =  66 
verses.     With  the  exception  of  the  fifth,  they  are  alphabetical, 
i.  e.  in  the  Hebrew  text  the  first  verse  begins  with  Aleph,  the 
second  with  Beth,  the  third  with  Gimel,  etc.     In  the  third 
song,  verses  1-3  each  begins  with  Aleph,  4-6  each  with  Beth, 

1  rfirp,  from  Up  or  fp,  to  strike,  to  sound  the  strings,  to  sing,  espe- 
cially to  sing  something  sad.  The  book  is  also  often  called  H^K,  from 
the  first  word  in  it. 


326    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

etc.  This  system  occurs  also  in  other  poems  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament (e.  g.  Ps.  cxviii.  and  Prov.  xxxi.  10-31) ;  it  probably 
served  as  an  aid  to  the  memory,  for  the  songs  were  intended  to 
be  sung.1 

4.  Liturgical  Significance.  The  Church  has  adopted  Lamenta- 
tions for  use  in  the  Divine  Office,  and  orders  some  portions  to  be 
sung  publicly  in  Holy  Week.  In  doing  so,  she  is  not  intending  to 
mourn  over  the  destruction  of  the  Jewish  Temple  and  the  Holy 
City,  but  rather  to  remind  the  faithful  of  the  punishments  in- 
flicted upon  disloyalty,  and  that  our  Saviour's  sufferings  on  be- 
half of  mankind  were  even  greater  than  those  of  Jerusalem.  The 
Lamentations  in  Holy  Week,  therefore,  are  the  voice  of  our 
Mother,  the  Church,  calling  upon  us  to  do  penance  and  to  be 
faithful  to  God. 


PROPHETS    WHO    LIVED   DURING   THE    CAPTIVITY 

28.     BARUCH2 
( Deuterocanonical ;   6  chapters) 

1.  Personality.  In  both  the  Vulgate  and  the  Septuagint  the 
little  Book  of  Baruch  is  appended  to  the  prophecies  and  lamen- 
tations of  Jeremias,  and  the  Fathers  occasionally  refer  to  it  by 
the  name  of  Jeremias.  Baruch  was  his  disciple  and  faithful 
companion;  he  followed  his  master  to  Egypt  (Jer.  xliii.  3,  6)  and 
after  his  death  he  went  to  join  the  exiles  in  Babylon.  Whilst 
there  he  used  his  prophetic  gifts  and  met  with  more  success  than 
Jeremias  had  had  in  Palestine.  The  Israelites,  being  now  made 
submissive  by  their  misfortunes,  gladly  listened  to  the  words  of 
the  disciple,  although  they  had  persecuted  the  master.  In  fact, 
Baruch's  admonitions  seemed  to  them  so  important  that  they 
sent  the  record  of  them,  written  by  the  prophet  in  the  fifth 
year  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  together  with  a  letter  of 

1  J.  K.  Zenner,  S.J.,  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Lamentations 
are  made  up  of  monologues  and  dialogues,  and  form  a  dramatic  dirge 
over  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.     Strack  says  that  a  long  section  of  a  verse 
is  always  followed  by  a  shorter  one,  and  this  indicates  that  they  were 
to  be  sung. 

2  3113  =  blessed,  benedictus. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    327 

introduction  to  the  Jews  left  behind  in  the  Holy  Land.  The 
prophet  himself  conveyed  the  book  as  well  as  some  vessels  taken 
from  the  Temple. 

2.  Contents  and  Divisions.     Chapter  i.  contains  the  above- 
mentioned   letter   of   introduction,   with   an   historical   preface. 
Then   follow   Baruch's   prophetic   utterances   in   chapters  i.— v. 
Chapter  vi.   is  an  appendix,  containing  a  letter  addressed  by 
Jeremias  to  the  unfortunate  Jews. 

i.  1-14,  King  Jechonias  and  other  exiles  are  moved  by  hearing  Ba- 
ruch's  book  read  aloud  to  send  it  and  certain  gifts  to  Jerusalem,  with 
a  letter  asking  that  sacrifices  might  be  offered  for  them  on  the  poorly 
restored  altar  of  holocausts,  i.  15-iii.  8,  prayer  acknowledging  guilt,  com- 
posed by  the  prophet  in  the  name  of  the  penitent  nation.  "  We  have 
deserved  the  punishment  which  even  Moses  foretold;  may  God  now 
fulfill  also  His  comforting  promises."  iii.  9-v.  9,  the  prophet's  admoni- 
tion :  "  The  people  have  fallen  into  misery  because  they  despised  God's 
commandments.  May  they  henceforth  be  faithful  to  God.  Our  troubles 
are  not  to  cause  our  destruction,  but  God  will  send  us  help."  vi.  1-7, 
Jeremias  warns  those  who  are  going  into  captivity  against  the  Baby- 
lonian idolatry,  the  errors  and  folly  of  which  he  describes. 

3.  Position  in  the  Canon.     The  Book  of  Baruch  is  deutero- 
canonical,  it  is  not  in  the  Hebrew  Bible.    Saint  Jerome  took  the 
Latin  text  from  the  Itala,  because  he  found  no  Hebrew  version 
of  the  book,  but   Origen  was  acquainted  with  one,  as  in  his 
Hexapla  he  marked  the  Greek  text  with  obels  and  asterisks  in 
the  same  way  as  the  protocanonical  books.    That  the  original  was 
in  Hebrew  is  proved  (a)  by  the  unmistakably  Hebrew  diction, 
(&)  the  admission  of  the  book  into  Theodotion's  translation,  (c) 
the  repetition  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  chapters  in  the  eleventh  of 
Solomon's  Psalms,  which,  although  now  extant  only  in  Greek, 
were  composed  in  Hebrew  (supra,  p.  209). 

Jeremias'  letter  could  not  be  added  to  the  Book  of  Jeremias,  because 
it  was  no  longer  extant  in  Hebrew,  and  so  it  was  joined  to  the  work  of 
Baruch,  his  disciple.  Against  its  authenticity  it  is  urged  that  it  had 
a  Greek  tone  and  is  in  contrast  with  the  general  style  of  Jeremias.  But 
it  contains  some  unmistakable  Hebraisms,  e.  g.  vi.  1,  afjiaprlas  ^apr^Kare ; 
vi.  2,  e£c££u  fytas  IJXT'  elp-^vrjs ;  vi.  6,  ^K^TU>V  r&5  faxas  v^wv,  etc.  The 
contrast  with  Jeremias  seems  to  be  in  vi.  3,  where  the  captivity  is  said 
to  be  destined  to  last  seven  generations,  whereas  Jeremias  speaks  of 
seventy  years.  But  the  Hebrew  word  1'n  does  not  only  mean  a  genera- 
tion, but  also  a  period.  That  Jeremias  had  reason  enough  for  giving  such 


328    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

a  warning  appears,  e.  g.,  from  Jer.  xliv.  17.  The  Israelites  said  to  the 
prophet  that  as  long  as  they,  like  their  fathers,  served  other  gods,  they 
had  bread  enough  and  were  prosperous,  but  since  they  ceased  to  do  so, 
they  lacked  everything  and  suffered  from  the  sword  and  from  famine. 
Another  evidence  of  authenticity  is  the  knowledge  shown  of  the  state 
and  especially  of  the  cultus  of  the  country  near  the  Euphrates,  as  Kaulen 
has  shown  (Assyrien  und  Babylonien) ,  e.g.  an  idol  is  mentioned  with 
sword  and  battle  axe;  Layard  found  a  representation  of  such  a  deity. 


29.    EZECHIEL1 
(48  chapters) 

1.  Personality.     Ezechiel  belonged  to  an  honorable  priestly 
family;    his  father's  name  was  Busi.     In  597  he  was  carried 
away  to  Babylon  into  captivity,  with  King  Jechonias,  and  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life  there.     In  the  fourth  year  of  his  residence 
in  Babylon,  593,  he  received  his  vocation  as  prophet,  and  for 
twenty  or  thirty  years  he  was  actively  at  work.    His  usual  resi- 
dence was  Tel-Abib,  a  little  town  on  the  river  Chabor,  a  channel 
of  the  Euphrates.    His  grave  is  still  shown  in  the  neighborhood 
of  ancient  Babylon.     According  to  tradition,  he  was  killed  by 
an  idolatrous  Jew,  whom  he  had  rebuked  for  his  wickedness. 

2.  The  Book  of  Ezechiel  proclaims  (a)  that  God  is  about  to 
inflict  a  fearful  punishment  upon  His  faithless  people  by  means 
of  the  Babylonians,  but  (6)  He  will  then  restore  the  Covenant 
with  them. 

Four  parts  may  be  distinguished  in  the  book. 

(1)  Chapters  i.-iii.  Call  of  the  prophet.2  (2)  Chapters  iv.-xxiv. 
Ezechiel,  being  a  captive  in  Babylon,  sees  how  Jerusalem  is  besieged 
and  captured,  and  then  destroyed,  with  the  Temple  which  is  abandoned 
by  God.  The  Holy  Land  is  a  wilderness,  the  false  prophets  are  exter- 
minated, and  intercession  is  vain,  for  Israel  is  like  a,  withered  vine.  In 
past  ages  Israel  was  espoused  to  God,  but  fell  into  adultery  through 
following  after  the  heathen  and  their  idols,  wherefore  it  is  now  punished 
by  means  of  the  heathen.  (3)  Chapters  xxv.-xxxii.  The  neighboring 
nations,  Ammonites,  Moabites,  Edomites,  Philistines,  Phoenicians  and 
Egyptians,  on  which  Israel  relied,  are  likewise  to  be  plundered  by  the 


r  =  mighty  is  God,  or  SKPT5T,  God  strengthens.     Septuagint, 

1  In  ii.  3  the  word  D"1);!  has  probably  been  interpolated  by  later  Jews, 
who  would  not  acknowledge  the  apostasy  of  Israel.  It  ia  not  in  the 
Septuagint  version. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    329 

Babylonians,  for  such  is  God's  will.  (4)  Chapters  xxxiii.-xlviii.  After 
the  chastisement  God  Himself  will  replace  the  wicked  shepherds,  and 
watch  over  His  flock,  arousing  His  people  from  death  and  showing 
mercy  towards  them.  The  prophet  beholds  and  describes  a  complete 
change  of  circumstances,  a  new  Temple,  a  new  form  of  worship,  a  new 
and  far  more  numerous  nation  having  God  dwelling  in  their  midst.  This 
description  is  not  to  be  taken  as  referring  only  to  the  period  after  the 
Captivity,  but  it  embraces  the  Messianic  age,  to  which  the  vision  in 
chapter  i.  also  seems  to  point. 

3.  Author.    The  prophet  speaks  of  himself  mostly  in  the  first 
person ;  we  may  therefore  assume  that  he  recorded  his  prophecies 
himself,  and  bequeathed  them  to  the  Jews  at  the  end  of  his  life. 
The  whole  work  is  remarkably  uniform  from  the  first  word  to 
the  last,  so  that  criticism  has  scarcely  found  any  cause  to  doubt 
or  deny  anything,  and  its  authenticity  has  hardly  ever  been 
questioned. 

Even  Cornill  acknowledges  its  authenticity;  he  says:  "If  any  book 
of  the  Old  Testament  bears  on  its  surface  the  mark  of  authenticity,  and 
exists  still  in  the  form  in  which  it  passed  from  the  author's  hand,  it  is 
the  book  of  Ezechiel.  No  other  displays  a  uniformity  so  magnificently 
conceived  and  so  clearly  executed;  no  other  reveals  from  the  first  letter 
to  the  last  the  same  hand,  the  same  spirit  and  the  same  well-marked 
individuality."  Cornill  has  attempted  to  correct  the  Hebrew  text  of  this 
book,  using  for  the  purpose  the  oldest  translations:  R.  Kratzschmar 
thinks  that  the  work  of  an  editor  can  be  detected  in  the  book  as  we  have 
it.  He  is  supposed  to  have  united  two  different  texts,  one  longer  than 
the  other;  in  the  longer  version  Ezechiel  speaks  in  the  first  person;  in 
the  shorter,  which  seems  to  be  an  abridgment  of  the  longer  text,  he  is 
spoken  of  in  the  third  person.  But  tradition  is  opposed  to  this  theory. 

4.  Style.     The  style  of  this  prophet  is  full  of  vivid  descrip- 
tions and  is  highly  picturesque;   the  book  contains  an  account 
of  several  visions,  yet  is  not  very  difficult  to  understand. 

The  most  remarkable  vision  is  that  of  God's  chariot  (chapter  i.). 
When  the  prophet  received  his  commission  he  saw  God  Himself  in  all 
His  glory  seated  on  a  throne,  which  did  not  stand  still,  but  was  carried 
like  a  chariot  to  the  four  quarters  of  the  heavens  by  four  creatures  of 
wonderful  appearance.  They  resembled  respectively  a  man,  a  lion,  an  ox 
and  an  eagle.  On  account  of  this  vision  (and  of  Apoc.  iv.)  these  four 
symbols  have  been  assigned  to  the  Evangelists. 


330    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

30.     DANIEL1 
(14  chapters) 

1.  Personality.    Daniel  was  in  Babylon  before  Ezechiel,  hav- 
ing been  sent  thither  as  a  hostage  in  605 ;  he  was  brought  up  at 
Nabuchodonosor's  court,  and  carefully  educated,  being  known  by 
the  Babylonian  name  of  Baltassar.    In  consequence  of  this  train- 
ing and  of  his  own  extraordinary  wisdom,  he  won  great  respect 
and  influence  at  the  court  of  the  pagan  king,  and  even  under 
the  Medo-Persian  government  he  constantly  held  high  offices. 
His  great  authority  over  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  appears  not 
only  from  his  own  work,  but  also  from  passages  in  Ezechiel 
(xiv.  14;    xxviii.  3),  and  to  the  present  day  he  is  spoken  of 
with  the  greatest  respect  in  Oriental  stories.     He  must  have 
lived  to  a  very  advanced  age,  as  his  last  prophecy  (x.  1)  belongs 
to  the  third  year  of   Cyrus'   reign.     His  grave  is   shown   in 
Shuster,   formerly   Susa,   and  is  held   in  great  honor  by  the 
Mahometans. 

2.  Contents.     Daniel  was  not  a  prophet  exclusively  for  the 
Jews,  but  he  addressed  the  Gentiles  more  especially,  as  it  was 
his  task  to  make  known  to  them  the  power  of  the  true  God  and 
the  indestructibility  of  His  kingdom. 

Daniel's  prophecies  are  intimately  connected  with  his  own  life,  and 
from  his  book  we  can  learn  most  of  his  history. 

Chapter  i.  Daniel  comes  to  Babylon  and  is  educated  at  the  king's 
court,  ii.  Nabuchodonosor  has  a  wonderful  dream  of  a  great  statue,  the 
head  of  which  is  of  gold,  the  breast  and  arms  of  silver,  the  lower  parts 
of  the  body  of  brass,  the  legs  of  iron,  and  the  feet  partly  of  iron  and 
partly  of  clay.  Daniel  interprets  the  dream  as  referring  to  the  various 
empires,  that  follow  one  on  the  other,  but  will  all  finally  be  made  subject 
to  God's  dominion.2  iii.  Erection  of  a  great  idol.  Three  friends  of 
Daniel  refuse  to  worship  it,  and  are  condemned  to  death  by  fire,  but  are 
miraculously  delivered,  iv.  Nabuchodonosor  has  another  dream  in  which 
it  appeared  to  him  that  he  was  to  have  the  heart  of  a  beast  for  seven 
years.  Daniel  interprets  this  to  mean  that  the  king  would  be  mad  for  a 


1  ^jri  =  God  is  my  Judge. 

2  According  to  Diisterwald,  the  first  empire  was  the  Babylonian,  the 
second  the  Medo-Persian,  the  third  the  Grseco-Macedonian,  the   fourth 
the  Roman,  and  the  fifth  the  Messianic,  that  is  to  outlast  all  the  empires 
of  the  world. 


THE  SACEED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY     331 

long  time  and  behave  like  a  beast,  v.  Feast  of  King  (i.  e.  Prince)  Baltas- 
sar,1  and  the  divine  sentence,  Mene,  Thekel,  Phares.  vi.  King  Darius,  the 
Mede,  who  is  governing  Babylon  on  behalf  of  Cyrus,  is  well  disposed  to 
Daniel,  but  by  his  courtiers'  intrigues  is  induced  to  cast  him  into  a  den  of 
lions.  Daniel  is  miraculously  preserved,  vii.  Vision  of  four  beasts  of 
prey,  representing  the  four  empires,  on  the  ruins  of  which  the  rule  of  the 
Messias  is  to  be  established,  viii.  Vision  of  a  ram  and  of  a  he-goat  that 
overcomes  the  ram.  The  ram  represents  the  Persian,  and  the  goat  the 
Graeco-Macedonian  Empire,  ix.  Revelation  concerning  the  seventy  weeks 
of  years,  after  which  redemption  is  to  come.2  x.-xii.  Visions  regarding 
the  Persian  Empire,  Alexander  the  Great  and  the  wars  following  his 
death,  and  also  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who  is  a  type  of  Antichrist,  xiii. 
Story  of  Susanna,  xiv.  Account  of  the  idol  Bel,  the  Babylonian  serpent 
worship,  and  Daniel's  preservation  in  the  den  of  lions. 

It  is  remarkable  that  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  the  Book  of  Daniel  is  not 
placed  with  the  prophetical  books,  but  in  the  last  section,  among  the 
Ketubim.  This  arrangement,  however,  dates  only  from  about  100  B.  c., 
when  the  Jewish  canon  was  finally  fixed.  According  to  the  earlier  ar- 
rangement of  the  sacred  books,  Daniel  followed  Ezechiel,  and  the  Septua- 
gint  has  preserved  this  order. 

3.  Divisions.     The  book  may  be  divided  into  two  parts,  one 
(chap,  i.-vi.  and  xiii.  and  xiv.)  historical,  and  the  other  (vii.-xii.) 
prophetical.    If  it  is  divided  according  to  the  language,  six  chap- 
ters (i.  and  viii.-xii.)  are  in  Hebrew;  six  (ii.-vii.)  in  Aramaic; 
two  (xiii.  and  xiv.)  and  part  of  chapter  iii.  are  preserved  only 
in  the  Greek,  and  so  are  reckoned  deuterocanonical. 

The  Septuagint  text  of  Daniel  is  acknowledged  to  be  very  faulty,  and 
for  this  reason  the  Church  did  not  use  it,  but  adopted  Theodotion'a 
version.  The  Septuagint  text  exists  in  two  manuscripts,  one  Greek  and 
one  Syriac.  Cf.  supra,  p.  237,  note. 

4.  Authenticity.    Modern  Protestant  critics  deny  Daniel's  au- 
thorship, and  believe  that  the  book  was  written  long  after  the 
Captivity.     Many  go  so  far  as  to  declare  the  book  an  absolute 
forgery,  on  account  of  the  detailed  prophecies  that  it  contains. 
As  no  one  in  the  sixth  century  before  Christ  could  know  what 
Alexander   the    Great    would    do    in   the    fourth    century   and 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  in  the  second,  it  is  maintained  that  the 
book  cannot  have  been  in  existence  before  the  time  of  the  Mach- 
abees.     It  may  have  been  composed  during  the  conflicts  of  the 

1  King  Nabonaid  had  fled  before  the  approach  of  Cyrus. 

2  See  Fraidl,  Die  70  Wochen  Daniels,   1883.      (The  reckoning  ought 
certainly  to  begin  from  458,  the  seventh  year  of  King  Artaxerxes.) 


332    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

Jews  with  the  Syrians,  with  the  purpose  of  encouraging  the  Jews, 
by  showing  them,  from  Daniel's  great  example,  that  no  worldly 
power  can  withstand  the  dominion  of  God  and  His  people. 

But  in  answer  we  may  say:  (1)  The  language  indicates  that 
the  book  was  written  during  the  Captivity.  Being  partly  in 
Hebrew  and  partly  in  Aramaic,  it  is  well  suited  to  a  time  when 
the  older  language  was  gradually  falling  out  of  use  among 
the  Jews,  and  giving  place  to  Chaldee.  These  languages  were 
equally  familiar  to  Daniel,  as  a  ruler,  and  so  he  left  his  prophecies 
on  record  in  both.1  (2)  The  contents,  too,  show  that  the  book 
belongs  to  the  time  of  the  Captivity.  The  author  was  evi- 
dently well  acquainted  with  the  events  of  that  period  and  with 
the  customs  of  the  Medo-Persian  rulers,  in  a  way  that  would 
have  been  impossible  for  a  Jew  in  the  second  century  before 
Christ.2  Mathathias  when  dying  reminded  his  friends  particu- 
larly of  things  recorded  in  the  Book  of  Daniel  (Matt.  ii.  59; 
cf.  Dan.  iii.  and  vi.).  Our  Saviour  Himself  (Matt.  xxiv.  15) 
referred  to  the  "abomination  of  desolation  which  was  spoken 
of  by  Daniel  the  prophet"  (Dan.  ix.  27). 

5.  The  deuterocanonical  portions  of  the  book  belong  to  the 
same  period  as  the  protocanonical,  and  in  all  probability  were 
written  by  Daniel.  In  style  and  contents  they  completely  agree 
with  the  historical  passages  in  the  first  part.  Many  critics  regard 
them  as  imitations  of  the  book,  because  (1)  no  Hebrew  original 

1  If  stress  be  laid  on  the  fact  that  the  language  of  chapters  ii.-vii.  is 
not  the  Eastern,  but  the  Western  Aramaic,  that  was  used  in  Palestine, 
we  may  argue  that  a  book  intended  to  be  frequently  read  would  have  to 
be  adapted  to  the  ordinary  speech  of  the  people,  and  that  in  this  way 
the  text,  as  originally  written  by  Daniel,  has  suffered  some  modification. 
P.  Riessler  tries  to  prove  that  chapters  ii.-vii.  were  also  written  in  He- 
brew in  the  first  instance.    In  his  commentary  on  Daniel  (Vienna,  1902), 
Riessler  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  book  was  certainly  written 
before  the  downfall  of  the  Persian  Empire,  and  most  of  it  by  Daniel 
himself,  although  many  glosses  were  added  in  the  time  of  the  Macha- 
bees.     The  language  of  the  book  bears  traces  of  Babylonian  influence. 

2  A  great  many  of  the  statements  in  this  book  have  been  confirmed 
by   recent   discoveries   in   Babylon,   e.  g.   the  name   of   the   plain   Dura 
(iii.  1),  and  the  name  Baltassar  (Belshazzar,  v.  1).    The  description  of 
Nabuchodonosor's  palace  is  accurate,  and  so  is  the  remark  that  Cyrus 
did  not  assume  the  government  of  Babylon  in  person  immediately  after 
his  conquest. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY     333 

of  them  is  extant,  and  (2)  in  the  Greek  Bible  they  are  not 
connected  with  the  protocanonical  Book  of  Daniel,  i.  e.  they  are 
not  inserted  after  chapter  i.  and  chapter  vi.  respectively,  where, 
according  to  their  contents,  they  ought  to  stand. 

That  a  Hebrew  text  originally  existed  seems  probable  from  the 
fact  that  not  only  the  Seventy,  but  also  Theodotion  and  Sym- 
machus  admitted  these  portions  to  their  translations,  and  a  study 
of  the  Greek  text  enables  us  easily  to  recognize  that  it  is  a 
translation.1  The  Book  of  Daniel,  like  that  of  Jeremias,  cer- 
tainly existed  in  two  forms  among  the  Jews;  the  Greek  trans- 
lators made  use  of  the  longer  version,  while  the  Jews  in  our 
era  recognized  only  the  shorter,  probably  through  dislike  of  the 
Christians  who  had  accepted  the  longer  Greek  text. 


FOURTH   SECTION 

THE    PERIOD    FROM   THE    CAPTIVITY   TO    THE    CLOSE 

OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  REVELATION 
31.   HISTORICAL  SURVEY 

The  following  events  belong  to  this  period : 

1.  In   536,  after  Cyrus  had  conquered  Babylon,  the  Jews 
returned  from  the  Captivity  and  rebuilt  the  Temple  and  city 
of  Jerusalem. 

2.  An  orderly  government  and  mode  of  life  were  restored 
in   the   Holy  Land,   in   consequence   of   the   exertions   of   the 
prophets  Aggeus,  Zacharias  and  Malachias,  the  priest  Esdras  and 
the  Persian  official  Nehemias.    The  claims  made  upon  the  Jews 
by  the  Persians  were  trifling  and  not  oppressive. 

3.  The  rise  of  western  influence,  first  from  Greece  (Alexander 
the  Great),  and  then  from  Egypt  and  Syria  (settlement  of  many 
Jews  in  Egypt)  ;   the  Septuagint,  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 

4.  The  struggle  of  the  Machabees  to  maintain  the  Jewish 
religion  and  independence,  and  to  secure  the  appointment  of 
native  rulers  (175-140). 

1  C.  Julius  tries  to  prove  that  they  did  not  originally  form  part  of  the 
Hebrew-Aramaic  book  of  Daniel,  but  were  written  in  Alexandria. 


334    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

5.  More  peaceful  times  under  native  princes  of  the  tribe  of 
Levi,  who  were  at  the  same  time  high  priests.    Simon,  140—135 ; 
John  Hyrcanus,  135-106 ;  Alexander  Jannseus,  106-78 ;  regency 
of  Alexandra  and  rule  of  her  sons  Hyrcanus  II  and  Aristobulus. 

6.  Eoman  supremacy  (from  63  onwards). 

The  books  of  Holy  Scripture  that  belong  to  this  period  are: 
(a)  Historical  writings:  Kings,  Chronicles,  Esdras  and  Nehe- 
mias,  Esther,  Tobias,  Judith,  Machabees. 

(&)  Prophetical  writings:  Aggeus,  Zacharias,  Malachias. 
(c)  Didactic  works:   Sirach  or  Ecclesiasticus,  Wisdom. 

HISTORICAL   WRITINGS 

32.   THE  BOOKS  OF  KINGS  1 

(According  to  the  Vulgate,  III  and  IV  Kings) 

(22  and  25  chapters) 

1.  The  Books  of  Kings  were  originally  not  divided ;  they  deal 
with  the  history  of  Israel  and  its  kings  from  Solomon's  accession 
to  the  Babylonian  Captivity,  i.  e.  with  the  history,  in  round 
numbers,  of  the  years  1000-600. 

Three  parts  may  be  distinguished:  (a)  Solomon's  reign,  I,  i.  to  xi. 
(6)  The  two  kingdoms,  I,  xii.  to  II,  xvii.  (c)  The  kingdom  of  Juda,  II, 
xviii.  to  xxv. 

Book  HI:  i.,  Solomon  becomes  king;  ii.,  David's  death;  iii.,  iv., 
Solomon's  wisdom,  his  court ;  v.,  agreement  with  Hiram  of  Tyre ;  vi.,  the 
Temple  is  begun;  vii.  to  ix.,  it  is  finished  and  dedicated,  other  buildings; 
x.,  Solomon'  splendor,  his  trade,  his  power;  xi.,  his  wives,  idolatry  and 
punishment,  his  death;  xii.,  Roboam  becomes  king,  ten  tribes  revolt  and 
establish  the  northern  kingdom  of  Israel;  xiii.  to  xvi.,  the  successive 
kings  of  both  States;  xvii.  to  xix.,  the  prophet  Elias  and  his  work;  xx., 
Eliseus,  war  against  Syria;  xxi.,  Naboth's  vineyard,  his  unjust  murder 
by  Achab  and  Jezabel,  Elias'  prophecy  against  them;  xxii.,  Achab  falls 
in  war. 

Book  IV:  i.,  wonders  wrought  by  Eliseus;  ii.,  the  kings  of  the  two 
States  fight  successfully  against  King  Mesa  of  Moab;  iii.  to  viii.,  the 
worship  of  Baal  prevails  in  the  northern  kingdom,  and  is  opposed  by 
Eliseus;  viii.  to  x.,  as  idolatry  is  spreading  also  in  the  southern  king- 
dom, the  kings  and  people  are  chastised  by  means  of  the  Syrian  King 
Hasael,  and  subsequently  both  kings  and  Jezabel  are  killed  by  Jehu,  who 


1  The  beginning  is  abrupt;    the  author  continues  the  second  Book  of 
Samuel  (second  of  Kings). 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    335 

ascends  the  throne  of  Israel;  xi.,  xii.,  Joas  reigns  in  the  southern  king- 
dom; xiii.,  xiv.,  death  of  Eliseus,  war  between  the  two  kingdoms;  xv., 
Ozias,  King  of  Juda,  has  a  prosperous  reign  of  fifty-two  years,  but  in 
Israel  there  are  frequent  changes  in  the  government,  and  the  Assyrians 
are  already  demanding  tribute ;  xvi.,  xvii.,  Juda  too  fears  the  Assyrians, 
who  seize  the  northern  kingdom;  xviii.  to  xx.,  Juda,  under  the  pious 
King  Ezechias,  is  miraculously  saved  from  the  Assyrians,  and  the  king 
recovers  from  a  severe  illness  (supra,  p.  316) ;  xxi.,  Manasses  is  godless, 
and  Amon  not  much  better;  xxii.  to  xxv.,  Josias  is  faithful  and  energetic, 
but  his  successors  Joachaz,  Joakim,  Jechonias  (Joachin)  and  Sedecias 
become  more  and  more  subject  to  the  Babylonians,  who  finally  put  an  end 
to  the  kingdom  of  Juda  and  carry  away  the  Jews  into  captivity. 

2.  Date  and  Authorship.  The  last  event  recorded  in  IV 
Kings,  xxv.  27,  is  the  kindness  shown  to  Jechonias  by  King 
Evilmerodach  in  the  thirty-seventh  year  of  his  imprisonment, 
i.  e.  in  560.  If  the  author  had  known  of  the  release  of  the 
people  from  Captivity,  he  would  certainly  have  added  this  as  a 
fitting  conclusion  to  his  work,  which  must  have  been  written 
during  the  Captivity.  The  author  is  unknown.  Judging  from 
the  style  and  spirit  of  the  book,  we  may  believe  it  to  be  the 
work  of  a  prophet.  Its  aim  unmistakably  is  to  impress  upon  the 
people  of  God  that  happiness  is  to  be  found  only  in  confidence 
in  God  and  in  serving  Him,  that  misery  always  follows  worldli- 
ness.  The  Talmud  names  Jeremias  as  the  author,  and  this  state- 
ment may  very  well  be  correct,  as  the  book  closely  resembles  the 
prophet's  work  in  spirit  and  in  language.  This  would,  however, 
involve  our  assuming  that  he  began  to  write  it  under  Josias, 
before  the  downfall  of  the  kingdom  of  Juda,  and  carried  it  on 
under  the  last  kings,  but  that  another  hand,  perhaps  Baruch's, 
wrote  the  conclusion.1  In  any  case  it  is  impossible  that  the 
books  of  Samuel  and  of  Kings  are  by  the  same  author.  The 
writer  of  the  former  describes  events  in  a  more  objective  way, 
without  showing  any  such  design  as  is  apparent  in  the  Book 
of  Kings.  Moreover,  in  the  latter  reference  is  frequently  made 
to  authorities,2  and  never  in  the  former.  Finally,  in  the  Hebrew 

1  It  is  possible  that  Jeremias,  of  whose  death  we  know  nothing  certain, 
went   to   Babylon,   and   finished   the   book   there   at    an   advanced    age. 
Holzhey  says  that  the  author,  or  at  least  the  finisher,  of  the  work  was  an 
exile,  living  between  Jeremias  and  Ezechiel. 

2  The  author  refers  once  to  the  chronicles  of  Solomon,  and  frequently 
to  the  chronicles  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  of  Juda. 


336    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

canon  the  Books  of  Kings  and  Samuel  were  always  separated, 
so  that  those  who  collected  the  books  regarded  them  as  being 
of  different  authorship.  It  is  only  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
Bibles  that  the  four  books  were  put  together. 

3.  Object.  The  author  wishes  to  show  that  God  has  fulfilled 
the  promise  given  in  II  Samuel  vii.  12,  etc.  God  commissioned 
Nathan  to  tell  David  that  his  kingdom  should  not  perish  like 
Saul's,  but  should  last  forever.  If  the  kings  of  his  line  fell 
into  sin  they  would  be  punished,  but  David's  kingdom  should 
nevertheless  endure. 


33.   THE  BOOKS  OP  CHRONICLES  (PARALIPOMENA) 

(29  and  36  chapters) 

1.  Name.    In  Hebrew  these  two  books  are  called  dibre  hajja- 
mim  =  words  of  the  days,  records  of  events  arranged  according 
to  the  time  =  annales.     The  Seventy  call  them  IlapaXetTro'^era 
=  completions,  supplements,  because  they  supplement  the  books 
of  Kings.    St.  Jerome  followed  the  Itala  version  in  calling  them 
Chronicon,  Chronicles,  which  name,  corresponding  as  it  does  both 
with  the  Hebrew  and  with  the  contents,  has  passed  into  general 
use. 

2.  Contents.    The  Seventy  divided  the  book,  that  was  origi- 
nally one,  into  two  parts ;  the  first  contains  twenty-nine  chapters, 
and  consists  of  two  distinct  portions,    (a)  Chapters  i.-ix.  contain 
genealogies  from  Adam  to  the  Jews,  who  returned  from  Cap- 
tivity.1    (b)  Chapters  x.-xxix.  contain  the  history  of  David,  but 
his  fall  into  sin  is  not  mentioned.    The  second  book  consists  of 
thirty-six  chapters  and  contains  the  history  of  the  kingdom  of 
Juda  from  the  time  of  Solomon  to  the  Captivity.    Whatever  is 
praiseworthy  in  the  Kings  is  emphasized,  and  the  only  source 

1  The  genealogies  are  intended  to  supply  the  Israelites,  and  especially 
their  teachers,  the  priests  and  Levites,  with  information  regarding  the 
place  of  Israel  in  the  history  of  the  world.  Ever  since  the  time  of 
Adam  one  race  of  believers  has  been  chosen  by  God  from  among  all  other 
nations,  and  from  this  race  redemption  and  the  Redeemer  are  to  come. 
Seth,  Noe,  Sem,  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Juda  and  David  are  the  chief 
representatives  of  this  blessed  line,  and  they  are  the  ancestors  of  the 
Messias.  Cf.  Matt.  i.  and  Luke  iii. 


THE  SACEED  BOOKS  CONSIDEBED  SINGLY     337 

of  happiness  is  shown  to  be  fidelity  towards  God.  Nothing  is 
said  of  the  northern  kingdom  and  its  rulers,  because  they  have 
alienated  themselves  from  the  blessed  line  of  David,  and  so  have 
no  share  in  the  salvation  that  is  to  come. 

Book  I:  i.,  genealogy  of  Jacob;  ii.  genealogy  of  Juda;  iii.,  pedi- 
gree of  David;  iv.,  descendants  of  Juda  and  Simeon;  v.,  of  Ruben 
and  Gad;  vi.,  of  Manasses  and  Levi;  vii.,  of  Issachar,  Benjamin  and 
Nephtali;  viii.,  of  Ephraim  and  Aser;  ix.,  Saul's  pedigree;  families  in 
Jerusalem;  x.,  Saul's  death;  xi.,  David  and  his  heroes;  xii.,  David's 
Army;  xiii.,  xiv.,  David's  wars;  xv.,  xvi.,  bringing  of  the  Ark  to  Sion; 
xvii.,  David  determines  to  build  a  temple;  xviii.  to  xx.,  fresh  victories; 
xxi.,  numbering  of  the  people,  and  the  punishment  for  it;  xxii.,  prepara- 
tions for  building  the  Temple;  xxiii.  to  xxvii.,  arrangement  and  duties  of 
the  persons  concerned  with  the  Temple  worship;  xxviii.,  xxix.,  last  direc- 
tions for  the  building,  Solomon's  accession,  David's  death. 

Book  II:  i.,  Solomon's  wisdom;  ii.  to  iv.,  building  of  the  Temple; 
v.  to  vii.,  the  Ark  is  brought  into  it;  Solomon's  prayer;  viii.,  other 
buildings;  ix.,  the  Queen  of  Saba,  Solomon's  wealth  and  magnificence; 
x.  to  xii.,  Roboam,  division  of  the  kingdom;  xiii.,  Abia;  xiv.  to  xvi., 
Asa;  xvii.  to  xx.,  Josaphat;  xxi.,  Joram;  xxii.,  Ozochias;  xxiii.,  xxiv., 
Joas  prospers  as  long  as  he  serves  God,  but  falls  into  idolatry  and  mis- 
ery; xxv.,  Amasias  has  a  similar  fate  and  xxvi.,  Ozias;  xxvii.,  Joatham 
is  happier  because  he  fears  God;  xxviii.,  Achaz  is  godless,  and  therefore 
unhappy;  xxix.  to  xxxii.,  Ezechias  is  a  good  king;  xxxiii.,  Manasses 
and  Amon;  xxxiv.,  xxxv.,  Josias  is  faithful;  xxxvi.,  downfall  of  Juda. 


3.  Author.    According  to  tradition  these  books  were  written 
by  Esdras,  although  this  is  disputed  by  many  critics,  who  believe 
them  compiled  in  the  fourth  or  third  century  before   Christ. 
The  language  and  style,  however,  really  resemble  those  of  the 
Book  of  Esdras,  which  forms  an  immediate  sequel  to  it.    In  any 
case  it  was  not  written  until  after  the  Captivity.    This  is  shown 
by  the  exalted  religious  consciousness  and  by  the  absence  of  all 
mention  of  the  history  of  Samaria,  for  the  northern  kingdom 
was  then  occupied  not  by  Israelites,  but  by  hostile  Samaritans, 
who  were  to  have  no  interest  in  the  work.    Another  mark  of  its 
late  composition  is  the  mention  in  I,  xxix.  7  of  darics  as  cur- 
rent  coins;    they   would  become   so   only   under   the   Persian 
supremacy.     The  mention  of  them  precludes  the  possibility  of 
its  belonging  to  the  period   of   Greek  influence,   because  the 
Macedonians  introduced  talents  and  drachmas. 

4.  Object.    Esdras  had  one  chief  and  one  secondary  object  in 


338    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE   BIBLE 

writing.  The  former  was  to  compile  a  history  of  the  Israelite 
nation  and  its  kings  viewed  in  their  best  and  laudable  aspect,  so 
that  the  religious  and  national  feelings  of  the  people  might  be 
roused,  and  that  they  might  be  convinced  of  their  being  the 
most  important  nation  in  the  world,  because  of  God's  revelations 
to  them.1  His  secondary  object  was  to  supplement  the  Books 
of  Kings.  Closely  connected  with  Chronicles  are  the  following : 


34.   THE  BOOKS  OF  ESDRAS  AND  NEHEMIAS 

(10  and  13  chapters) 

In  the  Vulgate  the  former  is  called  the  First  and  the  latter  the  Second 
Book  of  Esdras.  The  similarity  in  their  contents  enables  us  to  discuss 
them  together,  and  they  have  always  been  regarded  as  closely  connected, 
both  by  the  Jews  and  the  Church. 

1.  Contents.  These  books  contain  an  account  of  the  restora- 
tion of  civil  and  religious  order  in  the  Holy  Land  after  the 
return  of  the  Jews  from  Captivity.  Esdras  and  Nehemias  were 
especially  active  in  promoting  this  restoration. 

Contents  of  the  Book  of  Esdras.  Chapters  i.-vi.  Return  of  the  Jews 
from  Captivity  in  Babylon  (536  B.  c.)  ;  rebuilding  and  dedication  of  the 
Temple  (515).  Chapters  vii.-x.  Return  of  another  large  body  of  Israel- 
ites under  the  priest  Esra  or  Esdras,  who  was  zealous  in  restoring  or- 
derly government  and  protested  against  the  evil  practice  of  marrying 
heathen  women. 

Contents  of  the  Book  of  Nehemias.  Chapters  i.-vii.  Account  of  the 
rebuilding  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  and  of  settling  a  fixed  government 
among  the  Jews  who  had  returned.  This  was  particularly  the  work  of 
Nehemias,  an  official  at  the  Persian  court.  Chapters  viii.-x.  Esdras  reads 
the  Law  of  Moses  to  the  people,  and  makes  them  solemnly  renew  their 
covenant  with  God.  Chapters  xi.-xiii.  Supplement  added  by  Nehemias 


1  The  obvious  existence  of  this  object  has  led  critics  to  question  the 
historical  accuracy  of  this  book.  Bleek-Wellhausen,  Vatke  and  Stade 
consider  that  the  author  falsified  history,  and  left  out  or  altered  what- 
ever did  not  harmonize  with  his  own  views  regarding  the  Temple  wor- 
ship, as  being  the  only  one  sanctioned  by  God.  Stade  even  thinks  the 
whole  book  more  or  less  untrustworthy,  but  the  reasons  stated  as  grounds 
for  this  serious  charge  are  insignificant.  That  the  author  has  omitted  a 
good  deal  that  is  found  in  the  Books  of  Kings  is  to  be  explained  as  in 
keeping  with  his  object,  but  he  cannot  on  that  account  be  charged  with 
falsification  of  history. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    339 

regarding  his  own  special  work  in  the  Holy  Land.     All  the  information 
given  in  the  books  is  fragmentary  in  form. 

Many  critics  have  questioned  the  trustworthiness  of  the  various  letters 
and  lists  in  the  books,  and  especially  of  the*  correspondence  with  the  Per- 
sian court.  In  Entstehung  des  Judentums  (Halle,  1896),  Eduard  Meyer, 
an  historian  by  no  means  inclined  to  Yahwism,  furnishes  proof  that  the 
documents  are  undoubtedly  genuine,  a  fact  that  surprised  no  one  more 
than  the  author  himself. 

2.  Date  of  Esdras  and  Nehemias.    The  two  men  were  con- 
temporaries and  supplemented  each  other's  work.     Esdras  de- 
voted his   attention  more   to   religious   matters;   Nehemias  to 
external  and  political  arrangements.    The  reign  of  Artaxerxes  I 
Longimanus,  King  of  Persia,  is  generally  said  to  coincide  with 
the  period  of  their  activity    (465-425),  and  this  is  probably 
correct.1     It  is   objected  that  the  King  Artaxerxes  to  whom 
Nehemias  was  cupbearer,  could  not  have  been  Artaxerxes  I,  be- 
cause the  Samaritan  governor  Sanaballat,  mentioned  in  Nehe- 
mias ii.  19  and  xiii.  28,  was  still  alive,  according  to  Josephus 
Flavius  (Ant.,  XI,  vii.  2),  when  Alexander  the  Great  appeared 
upon  the  scene.     As  Nehemias  (xiii.  6)   alludes  to  the  thirty- 
second  year  of  Artaxerxes'  reign,  this  cannot  have  been  Ar- 
taxerxes   III    Ochus    (362-339),    and    so    it   must    have  been 
Artaxerxes  II  Mnemon  (405-362) ;   and  in  this  way  Nehemias 
and  Esdras  were  not  at  work  until  after  400;    the  activity  of 
Esdras  may  be  dated  as  beginning  in  398,  and  that  of  Nehemias 
in  384  (Kaulen,  Einl.,  II,  73).    Josephus  Flavius  is,  however, 
not  a  trustworthy  authority  regarding  the  history  of  Esdras  and 
Nehemias,  and  very  probably  he  has  made  a  mistake  here.2 

3.  Authorship.    The  books  are  not  the  work  of  one  man,  but 
consist  of  a  collection  of  official  documents  and  private  records. 

1  So   Welte,    KirchenlexiTcon,   Art.    Esra    (1st   ed.),   also   Loch    and 
Reischl,  ii.,  p.  2;    Reusch,  Einleitung,  125;    Comely,  Introd.  Comp.,  266; 
Father  A.  Hammerschmid  in  the  Passauer  Monatschrift,  1894;    Hoon- 
acker,  Nehemie  et  Esdras:   id.  Zorobdbel  et  le  second  temple;    id.  Nou- 
velles  4tudes  sur  la  restawration,  etc.,  Paris  et  Louvain,  1890,  92,  96; 
Guthe,  Bibellex.    Esdras  began -work  in  458,  Nehemias  in  445,  and  con- 
tinued until  433  or  432. 

2  In  matters  of  chronology  not  much  confidence  can  be  placed  in  Jo- 
sephus, as  appears  from  his  confusing  King  John  Hyrcanus   (135-106) 
with  his  grandson,  Hyrcanus  II  (63-40) ,  as  he  does  in  his  "  History  of  the 
Jewish  People." 


340    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

Of  the  latter,  those  in  Esdras  vii.-x.  were  written  by  Esdras,  and 
those  in  Nehemias  i.-vii.  and  xi.-xiii.  by  Nehemias;  the  others 
are  of  unknown  authorship.  It  is  very  likely  that  Esdras  made 
the  whole  collection,  as  Jewish  tradition  has  always  affirmed; 
though  a  later  hand  may  have  given  the  books  their  present 
form. 

This  is  inferred  from  Neh.  xii.  22,  where  "  Darius  the  Persian  "  may  be 
understood  to  be  Darius  Codomanus ;  the  addition  of  the  word  "  Persian  " 
implies  that  other,  viz.,  Greek  kings,  were  already  recognized.  In  the 
same  passage  there  is  mention  of  a  high  priest  named  Jeddoa,  who,  ac- 
cording to  Josephus,  met  Alexander  the  Great  (Ant.,  XI,  viii.  4).  But 
too  much  stress  must  not  be  laid  on  these  speculations.  Darius  the 
Persian  may  be  Darius  Nothus,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  425,  and  was 
therefore  contemporaneous  with  Esdras  and  Nehemias.  Cyrus  and  Ar- 
taxerxes  are  repeatedly  called  "  Kings  of  the  Persians,"  and  the  Jews 
spoke  of  them  thus  to  distinguish  them  from  their  own  former  kings. 
The  high  priest,  who  went  to  meet  Alexander,  was  not  necessarily  Jeddoa ; 
Josephus  seems  to  have  made  a  mistake  in  his  chronology  here  as  else- 
where. It  is  quite  likely  that  the  whole  work,  as  we  have  it,  was  written 
by  Esdras.1 

35.   THE  BOOK  OF  ESTHER 
(16  chapters:    i.-x.  3,  protocanonical ;    x.  4-xvi.  24,  deuterocanonical) 

1.  Contents.  This  book  relates  how  a  pious  Jewish  maiden, 
named  Esther/  became  the  wife  of  the  Persian  King  Assuerus 
(Achaschwerosch),  and  how  she  frustrated  a  plan  formed  by 
Aman,  a  proud  official  at  court,  to  have  all  the  Jews  in  the 
Persian  empire  massacred.  In  memory  of  this  event  the  feast 
of  Purim3  was  instituted,  and  it  is  still  kept  by  the  Jews  at 
the  end  of  February  or  the  beginning  of  March.  The  king,  whose 

1  In  most  editions  of  the  Vulgate  there  are  two  other  books,  called  the 
third  and  fourth  of  Esdras,  which  at  one  time  were  regarded  as  sacred, 
but  now  belong  to  the  apocrypha,  not  having  been  declared  canonical  by 
the  Council  of  Trent    (supra,  p.  208).     The  third  Book,  called  in  the 
Septuagint  the  first,  contains  nine  chapters  supplementary  to  our  first 
Esdras;    the  fourth,  also  known  as  the  Apocalypse  of  Esdras,  contains 
prophecies  and  visions  of  Esdras,  in  sixteen  chapters. 

2  The  Hebrew  name  was  Hadassa  (Myrtle),  Lat.  Edissa;    the  Persian 
Esther  =  dffT-fip,  star. 

8  Pur,  a  Persian  word  (Assyr.,  puru)  =  lot,  pi.  Purim  =  lots.  Aman 
had  chosen  the  day  for  the  massacre  by  lot;  it  was  to  be  the  thirteenth 
Adar. 


THE  SACEED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    341 

wife  Esther  became,  and  who  is  called  in  the  Hebrew  text 
Achaschwerosch,  is  probably  Xerxes  I  (485-465),  known. to  us 
from  the  wars  between  Greeks  and  Persians.1  The  Greek  text 
calls  him  Artaxerxes;  in  the  Vulgate,  from  chapter  i.-x.,  he 
is  Assuerus;  from  xi.-xvi.,  Artaxerxes  (Luther  wrote  the  name 
Ahasverus).  Most  ancient  commentators  identified  this  king 
with  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  (465-425). 

Contents  according  to  the  Vulgate:  i.,  Feast  of  Assuerus;  rejection  of 
Queen  Vashti.  ii.,  Esther  becomes  queen,  but  at  the  bidding  of  her  uncle 
Mardochai  is  silent  as  to  her  origin.  Conspiracy  of  two  courtiers  is  dis- 
covered by  Mardochai.  iii.,  Aman,  a  foreigner,  is  exalted  above  all  the 
king's  servants,  and  all,  with  the  sole  exception  of  Mardochai,  kneel  down 
at  his  approach.  Aman  procures  from  the  king  orders  for  the  massacre 
of  all  the  Jews  in  the  empire,  iv.,  v.,  Mardochai  and  Esther  are  horri- 
fied. Esther  goes  to  the  king,  but  at  first  only  asks  that  he  and  Aman 
will  come  to  a  feast  at  her  house.  The  request  is  granted,  and  the  feast 
is  to  be  held  on  the  following  day.  Aman  prepares  the  gallows  for 
Mardochai.  vi.,  the  king  wishes  to  reward  Mardochai  for  saving  his 
life,  so  he  orders  Aman  to  lead  the  hated  Jew,  dressed  in  gorgeous  rai- 
ment, about  the  city,  and  to  proclaim  him  everywhere  to  be  the  king's 
favorite,  vii.,  Aman  is  overthrown  and  hanged  on  the  gallows  that  he 
has  prepared,  viii.,  ix.,  the  Jews  receive  permission  to  use  arms  in 
self-defense.  Institution  of  the  Feast  of  Purim.  Mardochai  becomes 
chief  official  at  court  and  records  all  these  events,  x.,  xi.,  Mardochai's 
dream  and  its  interpretation,  xii.,  the  king's  decree  against  the  Jews. 
xiii.,  Mardochai's  prayer,  xiv.,  Esther's  prayer,  xv.,  account  of 
Esther's  appearance  before  the  king,  xvi.,  the  king's  decree  in  favor  of 
the  Jews. 

2.  Canonicity.  In  the  Hebrew  text  the  book  has  ten  chapters ; 
in  the  Latin  sixteen.  The  Septuagint  also  has  ten  chapters,  like 
the  Hebrew,  but  they  are  very  much  longer.  Saint  Jerome,  from 
whom  our  Latin  text  has  come  down  to  us,  supplied  from  the 
Septuagint  those  passages  which  do  not  occur  in  the  Hebrew 
text.  There  are  many  Hebraisms  in  these  deuterocanonical  por- 
tions, and  this  fact,  as  well  as  the  existence  of  another  Greek 
text,  independent  of  the  Septuagint,1  but  of  the  same  length, 
proves  that  the  present  Hebrew  text  is  only  an  extract  from  an 

1  In  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  at  Persepolis,  the  name  of  Xerxes  ap- 
pears as  "  Chsajarsa,  son  of  King  Darius."     In  this  form  it  bears  some 
resemblance  to  Achaschwerosch.     See  Kaulen,  Ninive  und  Babyl.,  p.  112. 
Xerxes  I  was  the  only  king  of  that  name  who  ruled  more  than  seven 
years;   in  ii.  16  the  seventh  year  of  the  king's  reign  is  mentioned. 

2  See  Fritzsche,  Libri  apocr.  Vet.  Test,  grace,  Lips.,  1871. 


342    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 

older  Hebrew  work,  which  the  Seventy  translated  in  extenso,  and 
thus  have  preserved. 

The  present  Hebrew  text  bears  no  mark  of  religion;  the  name  of  God 
does  not  occur  once  in  it.  It  was  probably  mutilated,  because  gradually 
the  Feast  of  Purim  came  to  be  regarded  by  the  Jews  as  a  kind  of  Satur- 
nalia or  Carnival.  Hence  the  Greek  and  Latin  text  is  preferable. 

3.  Author.     We  might  be  inclined  to  regard  Esther's  uncle 
and  guardian,  Mardochai,  as  the  author,  for,  according  to  ix. 
20,1  he  recorded  at  least  the  chief  points  of  the  history.    But  in 
ix.  23,  26  the  author  of  the  whole  book  seems  to  be  clearly 
distinguished  from  Mardochai ; 2  he  must  have  been  a  Jew,  living 
somewhat  later,  who  used  Mardochai's  writings  and  the  Persian 
annals    as   his    sources    of    information.      Possibly    Esdras    or 
Nehemias  may  have  been  the  author.    The  book  was  read  aloud 
at  the  Feast  of  Purim. 

4.  The  Date  of  Composition  certainly  coincides  with  the  exist- 
ence of  the  Persian  Empire.     The  book  was  written  whilst  the 
events  recorded  in  it  were  still  fresh  in  the  author's  memory, 
and  it  reveals  a  very  detailed  knowledge  of  the  Persian  court 
and  of  the  habits  of  the  people,  and  speaks  with  great  respect 
of  the  ruling  family  in  Persia. 

5.  The  Object  of  the  book  is  to  express  thanks  for  the  provi- 
dential preservation  of  God's  people. 


36.   THE  BOOK  OF  TOBIAS  3 
(Deuterocanonical,  14  chapters) 

1.  Contents.  As  a  reward  for  his  deeds  of  mercy  Tobias  is 
delivered  from  great  misery.  This  at  once  indicates  the  object 
of  the  book,  which  is  intended  to  inculcate  the  duty  of  charity 

1  "Mardochai  wrote  all  these  things,  and  sent  them  comprised  in 
letters  to  the  Jews  that  abode  in  all  the  king's  provinces." 

2  "  The  Jews  undertook  to  observe  with  solemnity  all  they  had  begun 
to  do  at  that  time,  which  Mardochai  by  letters  had  commanded  to  be 
done.  .  .  .  And  since  that  time  these  days  are  called  Phurim,  that  is, 
of  Lots." 

8  In  the  Vulgate,  father  and  son  are  both  called  Tobias  =  Tobja  = 
"  Good  is  the  Lord."  In  the  Greek,  the  father  is  Tobit  and  the  son 
Tobias.  In  the  Chaldee,  the  father  is  Tobi,  and  the  son  Tobja. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    343 

towards  one's  neighbors,  and  especially  towards  those  of  the 
same  faith  (cf.  Gal.  vi.  10). 

Chapter  i.-iv.,  Tobias,  a  pious  Israelite  of  the  tribe  of  Nephtali,  was 
taken  into  captivity  by  the  Assyrians  and  carried  to  Ninive,  with  many 
of  his  countrymen  from  the  northern  kingdom.  He  won  respect  and  be- 
came wealthy,  so  that  he  was  often  able  to  help  men  of  his  own  nation, 
and  he  provided  for  the  burial  of  many  Israelites  when  they  died.  Later 
he  fell  into  poverty  and  became  blind,  and  in  his  sorrow  prayed  for 
death.  The  same  prayer  was  offered  at  the  same  time  in  Ecbatana  by  a 
young  woman  named  Sara,  who  was  suspected  of  being  a  murderess. 
Both  prayers  are  answered  in  a  most  unexpected  way,  for  an  angel  is 
sent  to  their  help,  v.-vii.,  Tobias,  the  son,  undertakes  a  journey  to  ask 
for  the  payment  of  money  owing  to  them ;  he  is  accompanied  on  the  way 
by  the  angel  Raphael  in  human  form,  and  by  means  of  the  angel's  help, 
the  fortunes  of  the  family  are  restored,  viii.,  ix.,  young  Tobias  not  only 
recovers  the  loan,  but  obtains  Sara,  a  rich  and  God-fearing  woman,  as 
his  wife,  x.-xiv.,  the  elder  Tobias  recovers  his  eyesight;  the  angel  re- 
veals his  rank  and  vanishes. 

2.  Text.  The  book  has  not  come  down  to  us  in  the  original, 
but  only  in  translations,  which  to  some  extent  differ  from  one 
another.  It  was  written  at  first  in  Chaldee  or  Hebrew.  Saint 
Jerome  had  a  Chaldee  text  and  made  his  translation  from  it 
in  the  space  of  one  day,  as  he  tells  us  in  the  preface.  This 
haste  did  not  detract  from  the  value  of  his  work,  for  he  read 
the  Chaldee  with  a  Rabbi,  and  then  dictated  the  translation  to 
a  skillful  scribe.  The  Jews  and  Protestants  do  not  admit  this 
book  to  the  canon,  because  the  original  text  is  not  extant,  but 
all  the  five  texts  that  we  have  (viz.  three  Greek  versions  besides 
the  Itala  and  the  Vulgate)  show  distinctly  an  Oriental  and  even 
a  Semitic  character.  Recently  a  Chaldee  text  has  been  discov- 
ered, but  scholars  do  not  regard  it  as  the  original,  and  believe  it 
is  a  translation  from  the  Hebrew.  A  Hebrew  text  was  actually 
published  in  1897.1 

Of  the  Greek  texts,  the  one  used  in  the  Greek  Church  holds  the  first 
rank.  The  Codex  Sinaiticus  contains  another,  on  which  the  Itala  version, 


1  Numerous  Hebraisms  can  easily  be  detected,  e.  g.  chap.  iii.  1  and  9, 
dicens  ( "1D*6 )  ;  iii.  15,  desuper  terram  ( pKH  hy  }D  )  ;  iii.  24,  25,  in 
conspectu  (  ^flS  )  ;  vi.  15,  deponam  senectutem  illorum  cum  tristitia  ad 
inferos  (nSlStf  pJTD  Wfr-nK  Drmim),  as  in  Gen.  xlii.  38.  Cf.  also  xii. 
8,  15,  etc.  The  Chaldee  text  was  published  in  1878  by  Neubauer,  the 
Hebrew  in  1897  by  Gaster. 


344    HANDBOOK  FOB  THE  STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

that  is  quite  complete,  is  based.    A  third  Greek  text  was  the  foundation 
for  the  Syriac  text  in  the  Peshitto. 

3.  Date  of  Composition.    The  book  was  probably  written  in 
captivity,  either  in  Assyria  or  in  Babylonia,  to  console  the  exiled 
Israelites. 

4.  The  Author  is  unknown.     According  to  the  Greek  texts 
(Sept.,  xii.  20)   both  father  and  son  wrote  down  their  story. 
Some  later  author  made  use  of  these  accounts  and  added  in- 
formation gathered  from  the  lips  of  the  people. 

Vetter  thinks  that  the  book  was  written  between  250  and  150  B.  c., 
and  was  composed  in  Hebrew  during  the  Assyrian-Babylonian  disper- 
sion. The  material  is  a  family  history,  preserved  on  the  lips  of  the 
people,  and  made  use  of  by  the  author  for  a  didactic  purpose. 

A  manuscript  (ninth  century)  from  Freising,  and  now  in  Munich, 
contains  a  Latin  text  of  Tobias,  Judith  and  Esther.  It  is  an  Itala  text, 
and  varies  considerably  from  the  Vulgate. , 

37.   THE  BOOK  OP  JUDITH 
( Deuterocanonical,  16  chapters) 

1.  Contents.    In  the  time  of  Eliachim,  the  high  priest,  divi- 
sions of  the  Assyrian  army  penetrated  into  the  north  of  the 
Holy   Land   and  besieged   the  little   mountain   stronghold   of 
Bethulia.1 

Chaper  i.,  supremacy  of  Nabuchodonosor.  ii.,  campaign  of  Holofernes, 
iii.,  iv.,  preparations  of  the  Jews  for  resistance,  v.,  Achior,  the  Ammo- 
nite, reports  to  Holofernes  that  the  Jews  are  invincible  whenever  they 
are  faithful  to  their  God;  they  are  so  at  this  time,  and  therefore  he  has 
no  prospect  of  success,  vi.,  Achior  is  given  over  to  the  Jews  that  he  may 
perish  with  them,  vii.,  Holofernes  besieges  Bethulia.  viii.,  the  inhabit- 
ants are  disposed  to  surrender.  Judith  encourages  the  leaders,  ix., 
Judith's  prayer,  x.  to  xii.,  her  visit  to  Holofernes,  who  receives  her 
kindly,  xiii.,  after  a  feast  she  cuts  off  his  head  and  carries  it  to  Be- 
thulia. xiv.,  xv.,  horror  of  the  Assyrians,  their  defeat,  xvi.,  Judith's 
song  of  praise. 

2.  Text.    This  book  also  is  not  in  the  Jewish  canon,  because 
the  original  text  has  perished.     It  can  scarcely  be  determined 

1  New  Beit  Ilva.  The  inhabitants,  constrained  by  want  of  water,  were 
on  the  point  of  surrendering  the  town,  when  a  pious  widow,  named 
Judith,  killed  the  heathen  general,  Holofernes,  by  a  stratagem,  and  so 
delivered  her  native  place. 


THE  SACEED  BOOKS  CONSIDEEED  SINGLY    345 

whether  it  was  in  Hebrew  or  Chaldee.  That  in  the  fourth 
century  a  Chaldee  text  still  existed  is  proved  by  the  fact  that 
Saint  Jerome  made  his  translation  from  one.1  Besides  the 
Vulgate  text  we  have  the  Septuagint  Greek  version,  which  is 
plainly  a  translation  and  not  the  original,  as  it  is  quite  at 
variance  with  the  genius  of  the  Greek  language.  From  it  the 
texts  of  the  Itala  and  Peshitto  have  been  derived. 

3.  The  Author  is  unknown.    He  must  have  written  the  book 
either  just  before  or  during  the  Babylonian  Captivity.     This  is 
indicated  both  by  the  use  of  the  Chaldee  language  and  by  refer- 
ences in  the  text   (xiv.  6;    xvi.  30)   to  the  time  that  elapsed 
between  the  occurrence  and  the  recording  of  the  events. 

4.  Difficulties.     The  chief  arguments  against  the  historical 
character  of  the  book  are  derived  from  the  fact  that  we  do  not 
hear  elsewhere  of  any  high  priest  named  Eliachim,  nor  of  any 
Assyrian  king  named  Nabuchodonosor.    However,  in  IV  Kings 
xviii.  18  and  Is.  xxii.  20,  xxxvi.  3,  etc.,  we  read  of  an  Eliachim 
who  was  son  of  the  high  priest  Helcias  in  the  reign  of  King 
Ezechias,  and  he  no  doubt  in  time  succeeded  his  father.     If  it 
is  thought  surprising  that  the  high  priest,  rather  than  the  king, 
should  take  measures  for  the  defense  of  the  country,  it  should 
be  remembered  that,  according  to  II  Chronicles  xxxiii.  11,  King 
Manasses,  son  of  Ezechias,  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Assyrians 
and  kept  in  captivity  for  some  time.    We  may  therefore  assign 
the  events   in  the  story  of  Judith  to  his  reign.     The  name 
Nabuchodonosor  was  more  familiar  to  the  Jewish  scribes  who 
copied  the  sacred  books,  than  the  names  of  the  Assyrian  kings, 
and  it  might  easily  happen  that  an  uneducated  Jew  fancied 
that  he  ought  to  substitute  the  better  known  name  for  Assur- 
banipal.     The  same  remark  applies  to  the  name  of  Arphaxad, 

1  See  his  preface  to  the  book  of  Judith:  "Among  the  Hebrews  the 
book  of  Judith  is  classed  with  the  apocrypha,  and  its  authority  is  con- 
sidered less  in  settling  disputed  points.  It  was  written  in  the  Chaldee 
language  and  is  reckoned  among  the  historical  books.  Because  it  is  as- 
serted that  the  Council  of  Nicaea  placed  this  book  among  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, I  have  yielded  to  your  demand  or  rather  compulsion,  and,  laying 
aside  some  work  on  which  I  was  deeply  engaged,  I  have  produced  a  little 
explanation  (translation)  rendering  it  more  according  to  the  sense  than 
to  the  letter." 


346    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

king  of  the  Medes   (i.  1;    i.  5) ;    we  probably  ought  to  read 
Arbaces. 

5.  Authority.    Apart  from  the  testimony  of  the  Church,  the 
truth  of  the  whole  story  is  vouched  for  by  the  existence  of 
several  Midrashim,  i.  e.  Jewish  commentaries  upon  the  book,  and 
also  by  the  institution  of  a  festival,  resembling  the  feast  of 
Purim,  in  honor  of  the  victory.     The  festival  is  mentioned  in 
the  Vulgate  xvi.  31,  but  in  the  Greek  text  the  last  verse  in 
omitted,  probably  because  at  the  time  of  the  Seventy  the  cele- 
bration of  it  had  fallen  into  disuse.1 

6.  Object.     The  author  wished  to  prove  that  God's  people 
were  safe  under  His  protection  as  long  as  they  were  faithful 
to  Him  (v.  25). 

38.   THE  BOOKS  or  MACHABEEs2 
(Deuterocanonical,  16  and  15  chapters) 

1.  Contents  of  the  First  Boole.  It  records  the  history  of  the 
wars  waged  by  the  Jews  against  the  kings  of  Syria  (175-140). 
Under  the  Seleucidse  the  Jews  had  been  much  oppressed,  and 
Antiochus  IV  Epiphanes  (175-163)  had  shown  himself  particu- 
larly cruel.  He  wished  to  establish  his  supremacy  by  securing 
religious  uniformity,  and  ordered  the  Jews  to  take  part  in  the 
Graeco-Syrian  worship;  but  they  steadfastly  refused  to  do  this. 
A  terrible  persecution  followed,  and  God  had  chosen  Mathathias 
the  priest  and  his  sons  to  be  the  instruments  of  saving  His 
people.  They  laid  ambuscades  and  attacked  the  Syrians  first 
in  one  place,  then  in  another,  winning  more  and  more  adherents 
among  the  people,  until  finally  they  recovered  the  Temple  that 
the  Syrians  had  desecrated.  The  greatest  glory  of  this  achieve- 
ment fell  to  Mathathias'  son  Judas,  who  was  surnamed  maggaba 
=  hammer;  he  carried  on  the  work  that  his  father  had  begun, 

1  Bellarmine,  De  Controversies  Fidei,  defends  the  book.    Like  Kaulen 
and  Comely,  he  places  the  story  of  Judith  in  the  time  of  Manasses. 
Scholz  regards  the  book  as  allegorical   (see  infra,  p.  455),  and  N.  Peters 
agrees  with  him. 

2  The  Vulgate  spelling  of  the  name  is  Machabaeus,  probably  with  ref- 
erence to  the  Talmud  form  ODD.     The  Septuagint  has  MaK/cct/3cuos. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    347 

and  brought  the  whole  country  under  his  sway.  From  him  the 
name  Machabasus  passed  to  the  whole  family  of  Mathathias. 
When  Judas  was  killed  in  battle  in  161  B.  c.,  his  equally  heroic 
brother  Jonathan  took  his  place  as  leader,  and  he  again  was 
followed  by  Simon,  who  restored  peace  to  the  land.  The  Jews 
in  their  gratitude  bestowed  upon  him  (140  B.  c.)  the  crown,  to 
be  hereditary  in  his  family.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
John  Hyrcanus  (135-106). 

Chap,  i.,  ii.,  cause  of  the  wars;  iii.-ix.,  acts  of  Judas  (166-161); 
ix.-xii.,  acts  of  Jonathan  (161-143);  xiii.-xvi.,  acts  of  Simon  (143- 
135). 

2.  The  Author  was  a  Jew,  for  the  book  was  written  originally 
in  Hebrew,   as   Saint  Jerome  testifies.1     As  towards  the  end 
(chap,  xvi.)    King  John  Hyrcanus  is  mentioned  in  terms  of 
the  highest  praise,  many  people  have  supposed  him  to  be  the 
author.    But  no  writer  is  in  the  habit  of  extolling  himself,  and 
it  is  better  to  assume  that  whoever  wrote  the  book  knew  John 
Hyrcanus,  and  composed  it  during  his  reign.     The  author  was 
very  likely  a  priest. 

3.  Text.     The  Hebrew  original  text  has  perished,  and  we 
know  the  book  only  through  the  Septuagint  translation;   it  was 
the  source  of  the  Vulgate  version,  for  the  Itala  was  translated 
from  the   Septuagint,  and   Saint  Jerome  accepted  it  without 
alteration. 

4.  Contents  of  the  Second  Boole.    This  book  has  no  right  to 
the  name  "  Machabees,"  and  is  not  a  continuation  of  the  first. 

It  contains  (chapters  i.  and  ii.)  two  letters  sent  by  the  Jews  in  Pal- 
estine to  their  fellow  countrymen  in  Egypt,  inviting  them  to  join  in 
keeping  the  feast  of  the  Dedication  of  the  Temple.  Then  follows  a 
preface  and  then  some  additions  to  the  first  book,  viz.  (chapter  iii.)  an 
account  of  Heliodorus,  who  robbed  the  Temple,  (chapter  iv.)  some 
wicked  high  priests,  (chapter  v.)  the  cruelty  of  Antiochus  and  (chapter 
vi.)  of  his  companions,  displayed  especially  in  the  case  of  the  aged  scribe 
Eleazar  and  (chapter  vii.)  of  a  Jewish  mother  with  seven  sons.  Then 


1  Prologus  galeatus:  Machabceorum  primum  librum  hebraicum  re- 
peri.  Secundus  grcecus  est,  quod  ex  ipsa  quoque  phrasi  probari  potest. 
The  language  of  the  two  books  differs  greatly;  the  first  contains  a  num- 
ber of  unmistakable  Hebraisms,  while  the  second  is  absolutely  Greek  in 
character. 


348    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

follow  accounts  of  (chapter  viii.)  the  victories  of  Judas,  (chapter  ix.)  the 
death  of  Antiochus,  (chapter  x.)  the  purification  of  the  Temple,  and 
finally  (chapters  xi.— xv.)  further  successes  of  the  Jews  against  the  Syr- 
ians and  other  neighboring  nations. 

5.  The  Author  is  unknown.    He  is  generally  believed  to  have 
been  a  Jew,  living  either  in  Egypt  or  in  Palestine. 

In  the  preface  or  prologue  (ii.  24),  the  author  states  that  a  certain 
Jason  of  Cyrene,  who  is  otherwise  unknown,  but  was  certainly  a  Jew 
( Jason,  Greek  =  Josue ) ,  wrote  in  five  books  a  history  of  God's  people 
during  the  Syrian  persecution,  and  he  himself  aimed  at  making  a  care- 
ful abridgement  of  it.  As  in  the  case  of  the  First  Book  of  Machabees, 
the  history  begins  with  the  year  175,  but  it  ends  with  161.  Like  the 
work  from  which  it  is  abridged,  this  Second  Book  of  Machabees  was 
composed  in  Greek,  as  Saint  Jerome  rightly  perceived.  Greek  was  spoken 
at  that  time  at  Cyrene  in  North  Africa,  where  Jason  lived,  and  the  com- 
piler of  our  book  seems  also  to  have  lived  in  Africa,  and  probably  in 
Egypt,  as  the  two  letters  at  the  beginning  indicate.  He  knew  the  Holy 
Land  very  well,  however  (see  iii.  15  and  vi.  2),  and  consequently  many 
people  believed  that  he  wrote  his  book  there.  This  theory  finds  support 
from  his  using  the  Syrian  method  of  dating  events  (i.  7  and  10),  which 
could  hardly  have  been  familiar  in  Africa. 

6.  Date  of  Composition.    The  work  cannot  have  been  written 
much  before  100  B.  c.,  as  in  i.  10  the  year  188  of  the  era  of 
the  Seleucidae  is  mentioned.     This  era  began  in  312  B.  c.,  so 
188  in  it  would  correspond  with  124  B.  c. 


PROPHETIC   WRITINGS 

39.   AGGEUS  * 
(2  chapters) 

This  prophet  is  known  to  us  only  by  name;  he  came  into 
prominence  at  the  time  of  Zorobabel,  in  the  second  year  of  the 
reign  of  Darius  Hystaspis  (520).  His  task  was  to  encourage 
the  Israelites  to  continue  the  building  of  the  Temple,  that  had 
been  interrupted  for  many  years,  and  he  succeeded  in  his  un- 
dertaking. Only  four  short  speeches  of  his  have  come  down 
to  us;  they  are  closely  connected  and  contain  the  essence  of 
his  exhortations.  Their  authenticity  is  not  questioned. 

1  yn  =  festivals,  festive.    Saint  Jerome :  Festwus. 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    349 

Aggeus  addressed  his  words  to  Zorobabel,  who  then  governed  the 
country,  and  to  Josue,  the  high  priest,  (i.)  He  reproaches  the  Israelites 
with  building  their  own  houses  and  leaving  the  house  of  God  neglected. 
They  seem  to  have  feared  that  the  poor  imitation  of  Solomon's  Temple, 
which  was  all  that  the  impoverished  Jews  could  build,  would  not  please 
God,  and  that  He  would  not  be  willing  to  dwell  in  it.  For  this  reason 
the  prophet  assures  them  (ii.)  that  this  Temple  will  surpass  the  other 
in  splendor,  for  a  great  change  will  take  place  among  all  nations,  so  that 
all  eyes  will  turn  with  reverence  towards  Jerusalem,  whence  peace  shall 
proceed,  (iii.)  A  third  speech  declares  that  God  can  take  no  pleasure 
in  His  people,  as  long  as  they  display  no  zeal  for  the  Law  and  for  build- 
ing the  Temple,  (iv.)  The  fourth  speech  is  addressed  particularly  to 
Zorobabel,  and  contains  the  promise  that  the  house  of  David,  to  which 
he  belongs,  may  look  for  God's  protection,  although  all  other  royal  races 
shall  perish. 

40.  ZACHARIAS  * 
(14  chapters) 

1.  Personality.    Zacharias  was  the  son  of  Barachias  and  the 
grandson  of  Addo,  one  of  the  most  respected'  priests,  who  had 
returned  with  Zorobabel  from  captivity.    He  came  forward  about 
the  same  time  as  Aggeus,  in  520 }  but  as  he  is  spoken  of  as 
nafar  (youth)  in  ii.  4,  he  seems  to  have  acted  as  a  prophet  while 
still  very  young. 

2.  Contents.    Like  the  Book  of  Isaias,  which  it  to  some  ex- 
tent resembles,  the  Book  of  Zacharias  falls  into  two  parts :    in 
one  the  prophet  speaks  of  the  present  and  the  immediate  future 
of  God's  kingdom  in  the  Holy  Land,  in  the  other  of  the  more 
distant  future  of  God's  reign  in  the  Church.     The  first  part 
consists  of  chapters  i.-vi.,  the  second  of  ix.-xiv.,  and  vii.  and 
viii.  serve  to  connect  the  two. 

In  the  first  part  there  are  several  visions  regarding  God's  watchful 
care  for  Israel,  now  restored  to  be  a  nation,  and  at  the  close  there  is  a 
symbolical  act.  Chapter  i.  Introductory:  .Before  the  Captivity  God 
often  gave  warnings  to  his  people  by  means  of  the  prophets,  but  they 
would  not  hear,  so  punishment  came  upon  them.  Now  mercy  shall 
again  be  shown  them.  i.  7-17,  mankind  is  awestruck,  and  great  changes 
are  made  in  the  national  life  through  God's  intervention,  i.  18-ii.  4.  All 
enemies  who  have  risen  up  against  Israel  are  destroyed.  .  ii.  5-17.  In 
God's  kingdom  there  must  be  room  for  Jews  and  Gentiles,  iii.  1-10.  The 
high  priest  Josue  is  mediator  between  God  and  the  people,  and  a  type 
of  the  Messias.  iv.  Zorobabel  will  restore  the  Temple,  v.  When  the 


=  remembrance  of  the  Lord. 


350    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

Temple  worship  is  revived,  the  people  will  again  become  pleasing  to  God. 
vi.  1-8.  God  has  power  to  turn  aside,  chastise  and  destroy  the  enemies 
of  His  kingdom,  vi.  9-15.  Symbolical  act:  The  prophet  has  to  crown 
Josue,  the  high  priest,  as  a  type  of  the  Messias. 

In  chapter  vii.  the  question  is  raised  whether  fasting  pleases  God. 
That  it  does  so,  is  not  denied,  but  at  the  same  time  we  are  told  that 
right  dispositions,  and  especially  charity  towards  one's  neighbor,  are 
more  important  than  merely  exterior  forms  of  religion,  viii.  "  If  this 
rule  is  observed,  the  nations  of  the  Gentiles  will  have  recourse  to  you/'' 

The  next  six  chapters  contain  two  speeches,  ix.-xi.  and  xii.-xiv.  The 
first  is  addressed  to  the  powers  of  the  Gentiles,  the  second  to  Israel 
itself.  First  speech,  ix.  All  the  enemies  of  God's  kingdom  must  be 
humbled  and  made  to  serve  it,  but  its  ruler  shall  be  gentle,  and  shall 
enter  Jerusalem  on  a  she-ass,  x.  The  people  of  Israel,  though  long  sub- 
ject to  the  powers  of  the  world,  will  in  the  end  be  gathered  together  by 
God  from  all  parts,  and  will  receive  mercy,  xi.  Unhappily  Israel  rebels 
against  its  Lord  and  Shepherd,  and  values  him  at  no  more  than  30  pieces 
of  silver.  Second  speech,  xii.  Jerusalem  will  be  for  all  nations  the  center 
of  the  world's  history,  xiii.  The  Jewish  nation  will  despise  the  salvation 
and  the  Saviour  offered  them  by  God,  and  the  majority  of  them  must 
therefore  perish,  —  only  a  small  remnant  will  find  mercy,  and  become 
God's  people,  xiv.  The  new  institution,  intended  to  give  salvation,  will 
meet  with  much  opposition,  but  will  be  a  source  of  happiness  for  all 
nations. 

The  second  part  is  obscure,  and  its  language  differs  somewhat 
from  that  of  the  first.  This  fact,  and  also  the  allusion  to 
idolatry  and  false  prophets,  of  whom  we  hear  nothing  after  the 
Captivity,1  have  led  many  to  think  that  Zacharias  did  not  write 
these  chapters,  but  that  they  belong  either  to  a  much  earlier 
or  to  a  later  period.  Jewish  and  Christian  tradition  are  op- 
posed to  such  a  theory.  The  collection  of  the  Minor  Prophets 
was  made  not  long  after  the  time  of  Zacharias  (Ecclus.  xlix. 
12)  and  they  were  translated  into  Greek;  if  these  chapters 
were  added  to  the  first  part  without  comment,  it  must  have 
been  because  no  uncertainty  was  felt  as  to  their  origin. 


41.     MALACHIAS2 
(4  chapters,  in  Hebrew  3) 

1.    Contents.      (1)  Eeproof  addressed  to  the  priests  for  their 
negligence  and  rapacity  in  the  sacrifical  worship.     The  prophet 

1  The  words  refer  only  to  Israel's  former  transgressions. 

2  Heb.  O^Sp,  i.  e.  probably  TTp^Sp,  the  ambassador  of  the  Lord. 


THE  SACKED  BOOKS  CONSIDEKED  SINGLY    351 

takes  occasion  to  proclaim  the  new  and  more  perfect  sacrifice 
on  behalf  of  the  whole  world.  (2)  Eeproof  addressed  to  the 
people  for  their  evil  practices  with  regard  to  marriage.  (3) 
Announcement  of  the  Messias  and  His  Forerunner. 

1.  God  speaks  through  Malachias:    Jacob  and  Esau  were  brothers,  and 
had  therefore  equal  claims  upon  God's  providence.     Jacob  and  his  de- 
scendants were  always  favored,  but  they  showed  no  gratitude  or  love  in 
return.     The  priests  in  particular  display  very  little  respect  for  God 
when  they  sacrifice  lame,  blind  and  diseased  animals.     Such  gifts  would 
be  rejected  by  the  Persian  governor    (pecha).     Moreover,  there  is  care- 
lessness about  the  sacrificial  worship.    The  offerings  of  the  Jews  do  not 
please  God,  who  chooses  instead  a  pure  sacrifice,  that  shall  be  offered  in 
all  parts  of  the  world,     ii.  In  the  past,  people,  priests  and  Levites  were 
far  more  zealous  in  observing  the  covenant  with  God.     Israel   is  now 
rejected  for  its  indifference.     Marriage  is  not  what  it  should  be,  and 
God  is  displeased  with  the  mixed  marriages  and  frequency  of  divorce. 
(This  points  to  the  new  marriage  law  to  be  given  by  the  Messias.) 
iii.  The  forerunner  of  the  Messias  will  soon  appear,  and  be  followed  by 
the  Ruler  Himself,  the  angel  of  the  Covenant,  whom  all  await.     Almost 
the  whole  Jewish  nation  will  show  itself  incapable  of  understanding  and 
accepting  the  salvation  that  is  to  come  through  the  Messias. 

2.  Personality.    We  know  nothing  of  the  prophet  who  wrote 
this  little  book.     In  chapter  iii.  1  mention  is  made  of  a  "mes- 
senger" of  the  Lord  (mal'ak)  who  is  to  precede  the  Messias, 
and  the  Messias  Himself  is  called  the  "  messenger  of  the  cove- 
nant";  and  hence  we  may  infer  that  the  prophet  who  uttered 
these  words  was  not  known  by  name,,  and  that  his  prophecy  was 
described  as  that  "  of  the  messenger/'  from  its  contents.     Some 
think  that  Esdras  was  the  author.     The  Seventy  believed  the 
name  to  be  fictitious,  and  so  wrote  as  a  heading  in  their  trans- 
lation :   A.fj/j,fjia  \oyov  Kvpiov  eirl  TOV  '\crpar]\  ev  X€LP^  ayye\ov 
avrov.     The  Vulgate,  however,  reads :    Onus  verbi    Domini  ad 
Israel  in  manu  Malachice.     Most  people  agree  with  the  Vul- 
gate and  assume  that  there  really  was  a  prophet  named  Mala- 
chias, who  was  the  author  of  this  little  book. 

3.  Date.    Malachias  is  the  last  of  the  prophets;    hence  the 
position  of  the  book  in  the  canon.    The  Temple  seems  to  have 
been  built  when  he  wrote,  but  as  he  rebukes  the  same  evils  as 
are  mentioned  in  the  books  of  Esdras,  viz.  carelessness  in  the 
sacrificial  worship,  and  abuses  connected  with  marriage,  he  may 
be  regarded  as  contemporaneous  with  Esdras  and  Nehemias. 


352    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

We  may  agree  with  Cornill  in  thinking  that  his  activity  began  rather 
earlier  than  the  time  of  Esdras  and  Nehemias,  as  afterwards  there  was 
some  improvement  on  the  points  that  he  censures. 


DIDACTIC    WRITINGS 

42.     SlRACH,   OR   ECCLESIASTICUS 
( Deuterocanonical,  51  chapters) 

1.  This  sacred  book  is  called  Siraeh,  after  its  author,  and 
Ecclesiasticus    (liber),  probably  because  it  was  believed  to  be 
modeled  on  Ecclesiastes.     Others  have  thought  that  its  name, 
"  Book  of  the  Church/'  was  derived  from  its  frequent  use  in  the 
worship  of  the  church.     The  Seventy  call  it  "  The  Wisdom  of 
Jesus,  son  of  Sirach/'  or  "Wisdom  of  Sirach."     The  Peshitto 
title  is  "  Wisdom  of  Sirach's  son." 

2.  Contents.     The  book  is  a  collection  of  proverbs,  admoni- 
tions and  instructions,  resembling  the   Proverbs  of   Solomon. 
The  contents  are  strung  together  without  any  definite  arrange- 
ment.   It  may  be  divided  into  a  preface  x  and  the  following  four 
parts:   (a)   Instruction  on  wisdom  in  general   (chap,  i.) ;   (&) 
collection  of  proverbs,  constituting  the  chief  part  of  the  book 
(ii.— xliii.)  ;   (c)  survey  of  the  history  of  the  people  of  revela- 
tion and  praise  of  the  great  men  belonging  to  that  nation 
xliv.-l.) ;  (d)  the  author's  thanksgiving  for  God's  protection  and 
for  the  gift  of  wisdom  (li.).    Parts  (6)  and  (c)  are  connected 
by  considerations  of  God's  greatness  revealed  in  nature   (xlii. 
15-xliii.  37). 

(a)  i.,  origin  and  fruits  of  wisdom;  its  connection  with  the  fear  of 
God. 

(6)  ii.  1-iv.  11,  the  spirit  of  humility  and  beneficence  are  essential 
conditions  to  wisdom,  iv.  12-v.  18,  wisdom  is  the  highest  good  in  life. 
vi.  1-ix.  25,  instructions  for  intercourse  with  other  people,  x.  1-xi.  36, 
behavior  in  wealth  and  poverty,  in  prosperity  and  affliction,  xii.  1-xiii. 
32,  prudence  in  acts  of  charity  and  in  dealing  with  the  powerful,  xiv. 
1-xvii.  31,  do  good  in  the  fear  of  God,  and  all  will  be  rewarded,  xviii. 
1-xxiii.  38,  warnings  against  various  sins.  xxiv.  1-47,  God's  wisdom  is 
a  model  for  man's,  xxv.  1-xxvi.  28,  instructions  on  every-day  life  and 
family  matters,  xxvii.  1-xxxi.  42,  instructions  regarding  anger,  revenge, 

1  The  preface  was  not  written  by  the  author,  but  by  his  grandson, 
who  translated  the  book  into  Greek. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    353 

education  and  temperance,  xxxii.  1-xxxv.  26,  instructions  for  those  in 
authority,  xxxvi.  1-19,  may  God  have  mercy  on  His  people,  xxxvi.  20- 
xlii.  14,  behavior  towards  counselors;  in  sickness,  in  death;  the  wise 
man  ever  seeks  to  learn,  thus  he  obtains  much  happiness  even  amidst  the 
changing  circumstances  of  life.  xlii.  15-xliii.  37,  all  creation  bears  wit- 
ness to  God's  power  and  glory. 

(c)  xliv.,  praise  of  Henoch,  Noe,  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob,     xlv., 
of  Moses,  Aaron  and  Phinees.     xlvi.,  of  Josue  and  Caleb;    of  Samuel, 
xlvii.,  of  Nathan,  David  and  Solomon,    xlviii.,  of  Elias,  Eliseus,  Ezechias 
and  Isaias.     xlix.,  of  Josias,  Jeremias,  Ezechiel,  Zorobabel  and  Nehe- 
mias.    1.,  of  the  high  priest  Simon. 

(d)  li.,  thanksgiving  of  Jesus  Sirach. 

Holy  Scripture  itself,  i.  e.  the  earlier  books  in  it,  is  the  chief 
source  of  these  instructions.  It  is  suggested  in  the  preface  that 
the  author,  after  reading  and  piously  meditating  upon  the  sacred 
books,  had  himself  derived  the  benefit  of  being  filled  with  the 
Holy  Spirit.  Deep  study  of  Scripture  led  up  to  inspiration  — 
a  hint  for  all  who  have  to  make  known  the  word  of  God. 

The  author  seems  to  have  read  and  studied  especially  the  book  of 
Solomon's  Proverbs,  for  which  reason  this  book  also  used  to  be  ascribed 
to  Solomon.  This  is  true  in  as  far  as  Solomon's  wisdom  is  one  of  its 
chief  sources.  In  the  liturgy  it  is  referred  to  as  "  Liber  sapientise." 

3.  Language.  The  book  was  written  originally  in  Hebrew, 
but  for  a  long  time  the  Septuagint  had  to  replace  the  original, 
and  the  work  was  known  only  in  translations.  That  the  Greek 
is  not  the  original  appears  from  the  many  Hebraisms  that  it 
contains,  and  from  the  frequent  parallelism  in  the  parts  of  the 
verses.  Saint  Jerome  says  (Prcef.  in  libros  Sal.)  that  he  had 
seen  the  Hebrew  text.1  The  fact  that  a  portion  of  these  proverbs 
has  been  preserved  in  the  Talmud  is  clear  proof  of  their  having 
been  written  in  Hebrew ; 2  but  the  Hebrew  text  was  lost,  per- 
haps because  people  believed  it  to  have  been  tampered  with,  and 
it  is  only  recently  that  a  considerable  part  of  it  (xxxix.  15-xlix. 
II,  and  some  other  fragments)  has  been  recovered,  so  that  now 

1  Fertur  et  Panaretos  [iravaperos  =  virtuous]  Jesu  filii  Sirach  liber  et 
alius  pseudepigraphus,   qui  Sapientia   Salomonis  inscribitur.     Quorum 
prior  em  hebraicum  reperi;   non  "  Ecclesiasticum,"  ut  apud  Latinos,  sed 
"  Parabolas  "  prcenotatum. 

2  The  proverbs  in  the  Talmud  have  been  collected  and  edited  by  De- 
litzsch:    Zur  Geschichte  der  judischen  Poesie,  Leipzig,  1836. 


364    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OP  THE   BIBLE 

we  have  the  Book  of  Sirach  in  Hebrew,  with  the  exception  of 
about  fifteen  chapters  and  some  shorter  passages.1  The  Latin 
texts  of  the  Itala  and  the  Vulgate  are  based  not  upon  the 
Hebrew,  but  upon  the  Greek,  as  appears  from  the  retention  of 
many  Greek  words,  such  as  agonizari,  thesaurizare,  eucliaris, 
acharis,  etc.  Saint  Jerome  did  not  make  a  Latin  translation 
of  this  work,  probably  because  the  text  of  the  Septuagint  and 
the  Itala  pleased  him  better  than  the  Hebrew.  The  Septua- 
gint text  has  suffered  in  course  of  time;  the  Itala  was  trans- 
lated from  an  earlier  and  more  correct  version. 

4.  Author.  The  book  was  composed  in  Hebrew  about  the 
year  190  by  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach,  a  native  of  Jerusalem.  His 
grandson  and  namesake  made  a  very  free  translation  of  it  into 
Greek  about  the  year  130,  in  Egypt. 

The  date  may  be  ascertained  in  the  following  way:  The  author's 
grandson  says  in  his  preface  that  in  the  thirty-eighth  year,  in  the  reign 
of  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  he  came  to  Egypt,  found  that  the  Jews  there  had 
a  valuable  literature,  and  determined  to  add  to  it  a  translation  of  his 
grandfather's  book.  The  thirty-eighth  year  may  refer  either  to  the 
grandson's  age  or  to  the  king's  reign.  Two  kings  bore  the  name  Euer- 

1  "The  original  Hebrew  of  a  portion  of  Ecclesiasticus  [xxxix.  15- 
xlix.  11]  together  with  the  early  versions  and  an  English  translation 
.  .  .  edited  by  Cowley  and  Neubauer,"  Oxford,  1897.  The  other  portions 
have  also  been  published.  Cf.  Schechter,  "  The  Wisdom  of  Ben  Sira, 
portions  of  the  Book  Ecclesiasticus  from  Hebrew  Manuscripts,"  Cam- 
bridge, 1899.  The  fragments  were  found  in  Cairo.  Professor  Margo- 
liouth  tried  to  prove  that  these  discoveries  were  not  parts  of  a  Hebrew 
original,  but  of  a  translation  made  in  the  eleventh  century.  His  theory 
was,  however,  contradicted  and  disproved  by  Ed.  Konig,  in  his  Orig- 
inalitdt  des  neulich  entdeckten  hebraischen  Sirachtextes,  Frbg.  i.  B., 
1899.  The  Hebrew  text,  as  far  as  it  has  been  discovered  at  present,  has 
been  edited  with  notes  and  vocabulary  by  H.  L.  Strack  (Lpz.,  1903,  VI, 
and  74  pages).  It  has  also  been  edited  with  a  translation  and  critical 
notes  by  N.  Peters,  Frbg.,  1902,  who  brought  out  in  1905  what  is  in- 
tended to  be  a  supplement  to  our  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible:  Liber 
Jesu  filii  Sirach  hebraice  secundum  codices  nuper  repertos  vocalibus 
adornatus  addita  versione  latino,  cum  glossario  hebraico-latino.  Edidit 
Norbertus  Peters,"  Frib.  The  Hebrew  text  with  a  Latin  translation 
may  be  found  also  at  the  beginning  of  Knabenbauer's  "  Commentary  on 
Sirach."  The  fragments  show  that  the  Greek  translation  is  very  free. 
Like  Schechter  ("  The  Wisdom  of  Ben  Sira  ") ,  Knabenbauer  draws  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  Sirach's  numerous  allusions  to  all  parts  of  the 
book  of  Psalms  make  it  almost  impossible  for  us  to  accept  the  theory 
ol  Machabeean  Psalms. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    355 

getes,  Ptolemy  III,  247-222,  and  Ptolemy  VII,  also  called  Physcon,  who 
ruled  at  first  conjointly  with  his  brother  Ptolemy  Philometor  (170-145) 
and  afterwards  alone  (145-117).  A  further  clue  is  given  us  by  the 
mention  of  Simon,  the  high  priest,  the  son  of  Onias,  of  whom  the  author 
speaks  in  a  way  (1.  1-21)  that  shows  he  must  have  known  him  per- 
sonally. There  were  two  high  priests  named  Simon,  each  being  a  son  of 
Onias.  Simon  I  was  high  priest,  310-291;  Simon  II.,  219-199.  The 
references  in  Ecclesiasticus  are  probably  not  to  Ptolemy  III  Euergetes, 
nor  to  the  first  Simon,  but  to  Ptolemy  VII  Euergetes  and  the  second 
Simon.  Now  Ptolemy  VII  reigned  over  thirty-eight  years,  and  the 
thirty-eighth  year  refers,  not  to  the  grandson's  age,  but  to  the  king's 
reign,  i.  e.  132  B.  c.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  it  may  mean  the  thirty- 
eighth  year  after  the  book  was  composed  in  Hebrew. 

In  the  third  and  second  centuries  B.  c.  Hebrew  was  no  longer  com- 
monly spoken,  but  it  was  known  and  used  by  the  educated  classes.1 


43.   THE  BOOK  OF  WISDOM 

( Deuterocanonical,  19  chapters) 

1.  By  wisdom  (chokma)  the  Old  Testament  understands  the 
insight  and  knowledge  how  to  act  aright,  that  a  man  may  obtain 
by  studying  divine  revelations  and  especially  Holy   Scripture 
(cf.  p.  292).     This  is  the  wisdom  with  which  the  book  of  that 
name  deals.     It  is  an  admonition  supposed  to  be  addressed  by 
King  Solomon  to  the  rulers  of  the  earth,  whom  he  urges  to 
cultivate  a  religious  mode  of  life,  rather  than  to  follow  the  prin- 
ciples of  false  wisdom.     In  this  book  there  is  an  unmistakable 
reference  on  the  part  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to  the  New  Testament 
revelation,  as  the  author  (1)  speaks  of  a  just  man  as  the  Son 
of  God,  who  is  hated  by  the  wicked  and  condemned  to  a  shameful 
death  (chap,  ii.) ;  (2)  lays  stress  on  the  merit  of  a  pure  and 
perfectly  temperate  life  (chap,  iii.,  iv.)  ;  and  (3)  alludes  to  ever- 
lasting rewards  and  punishments  in  far  plainer  terms  than  the 
earlier  sacred  writers  (e.  g.  iv.  19;  v.  16). 

2.  Divisions.    Four  sections  may  be  distinguished :  (a)  i.— v. : 
General  admonition  to  wisdom :  life  passed  in  accordance  with  the 

1  Some  people  have  doubted  whether  the  Jews  in  Egypt  during  the 
third  and  second  centuries  B.  c.  were  numerous  enough  to  have  developed 
a  Graeco- Jewish  literature.  Schiirer  draws  attention  to  an  inscription 
from  Shedia  near  Alexandria,  which  proves  that  a  number  of  syna- 
gogues existed  in  Egypt  in  the  third  century.  Cf.  Revue  biblique,  1898, 
i.  58. 


356    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

faith  secures  the  advantages  of  quiet  and  peace  on  earth,  and  of 
safety  at  the  judgment.  (&)  vi.-ix. :  As  the  mighty  must  antici- 
pate a  stricter  examination  than  others,  they  should  follow  Solo- 
mon's example,  and  strive  to  obtain  wisdom,  and  pray  to  God 
for  it.  (c)  x.-xix. :  The  advantages  of  wisdom  are  shown  from 
history,  as  recorded  in  Holy  Scripture,  (d)  xiii.-xv. :  Episode; 
condemnation  of  idolatry  as  a  contrast  to  wisdom. 

i.-iii.,  the  wicked,  who  mock  the  righteous,  bring  ruin  upon  themselves, 
iv.,  v.,  the  virtuous  enjoy  inward  peace  and  are  justified  at  the  judg- 
ment, vi.,  ye  rulers,  promote  the  service  of  God!  a  strict  trial  awaits 
yov.  vii.-ix.,  seek,  like  Solomon,  true  wisdom,  that  is  most  precious 
and  contains  sweet  fruits;  pray,  as  I  do,  for  wisdom,  x.-xii.,  in  every 
age  God  has  protected  the  wise,  and  punished  the  wicked,  xiii.-xv.,  how 
foolish  is  the  idolatry  of  the  heathen!  xvi.-xix.,  the  heathen  Egyptians, 
who  oppressed  the  servants  of  the  true  God,  were  grievously  afflicted, 
but  the  Israelites  found  help. 

3.  Language.    The  book  was  composed  in  Greek,  though  the 
author  refers  to  Hebrew  documents.     Its  composition  in  Greek 
is  apparent  from  the  purity  of  the  language  and  the  writer's 
familiarity  with  Greek  ways  of  thought.    The  frequent  parallel- 
ism in  the  verses  and  the  style,  savoring  of  Hebrew,  suggest  his 
having  used  Hebrew  documents. 

In  i.  14  mention  is  made  of  Hades,  in  xvi.  11  of  the  river  Lethe,  in 
iv.  2  of  the  games  customary  among  the  Greeks,  in  xix.  of  ambrosia,  the 
food  of  the  gods.  Some  of  the  Hebraisms  are,  e.  g.,  ix.  6,  "  children  of 
men,"  ix.  9,  "  agreeable  to  thy  eyes." 

The  old  Latin  translation  and  the  Peshitto  were  certainly  based  on  a 
Greek  original. 

4.  The  Author  is  unknown.    At  one  time  the  book  was  often 
ascribed  to  the  Jew  Philo,  but  this  theory  has  long  been  aban- 
doned, for  the  book  is  in  direct  antagonism  to  Greek  philosophy, 
which  Philo  esteemed  highly.    Moreover,  it  is  never  mentioned 
in  the  list  of  his  writings.    The  Greek  title  cro^ia  2o\e*tyi(»z>,  does 
not  mean  that  Solomon  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  author,  but  that 
the  wisdom  extolled  in  the  book  is  found  also  in  Solomon's 
writings  and  is  in  harmony  with  the  wisdom  obtained  by  this 
king  from  God.1    It  seems  certain  that  the  book  was  written  by 

1  Hence  Saint  Jerome  says  (Prol.  in  Libr.  Sal.) :  (liber)  pseudepi- 
graphus,  qui  Sapientia  Salomonis  inscribitur. 


THE  SACEED  BOOKS  CONSIDERED  SINGLY    357 

a  Jew  in  Egypt,  as  there  are  several  allusions  to  that  country 
(the  plagues  of  Egypt,  the  passage  of  the  Eed  Sea,  and  the 
destruction  of  the  Egyptian  army). 

5.  Date.  The  numerous  allusions  to  the  cruelty  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  to  Israel  seem  to  suggest  that  the  monotheism  pro- 
fessed by  the  author  and  his  fellow  countrymen  displeased  the 
authorities  in  Egypt,  and  that  the  Jews  met  with  hostility  in 
consequence.  This  was  the  case  under  King  Ptolemy  Philopator 
( 220-204  J.1  The  book  was  written  during  his  reign  or  not  long 
after.2 

If  we  consider  the  OLD  TESTAMENT  as  a  whole,  we  have  to  acknowledge 
that  among  mankind  from  the  time  of  Adam,  Noe,  Abraham  and  Moses, 
a  community  belonging  particularly  to  God  has  always  existed,  sharply 
distinguished  from  the  wicked,  and  kept  firm  by  bonds  of  justice  and  fear. 
The  members  of  this  community  have  often  been  hated,  despised,  perse- 
cuted and  oppressed,  but  they  could  never  be  completely  overcome.  Wis- 
dom xix.  20,  "  Thou  didst  magnify  thy  people,  O  Lord,  and  didst  honor 
them,  and  didst  not  despise  them,  but  didst  assist  them  at  all  times  and 
in  every  place."  Destruction  and  wickedness  prevailed  not  only  outside 
this  race,  but  often  penetrated  into  it.  The  faithful  servants  of  God 
had  a  hard  task  to  stand  firm,  and  were  often  reduced  to  a  very  small 
number,  and  these  few  were  frequently  devoid  of  influence,  wealth  and 
power.  Beset  both  from  without  and  from  within  they  besought  God's 
intervention,  God's  help  and  redemption,  and  they  awaited  it  not  merely 
for  themselves,  but  for  all  mankind,  for  this  was  the  prospect  presented  to 
them  in  promises  and  types.  Redemption  came  through  JESUS  CHRIST. 
He  transformed  the  little  community  into  one  embracing  the  whole 
world,  and  in  order  to  facilitate  the  spread  of  Christianity  God  in  His 
providence  had  caused  the  Roman  Empire  to  extend  over  the  world.  Now 
all  mankind  possesses  the  blessing  of  redemption  in  the  great  kingdom 
of  Christ,  where  mercy  and  love  reign  supreme.  John  i.  17,  "the  law 
was  given  by  Moses,  grace  and  truth  came  by  Jesus  Christ."  Before 
Christ  came  man  was  a  servant,  now  he  is  a  son.  These  are  the  tidings 
conveyed  in  the  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


1  Josephus  Flavius,  Contra  Apion,  II,  5.    The  apocryphal  third  Book 
of  Machabees,  generally  to  be  found  at  the  end  of  editions  of  the  Septua- 
gint,  gives  a  similar  account. 

2  Lagrange  gives  the  date  145-150  B.  c.     That  date  harmonizes  with 
the  author's  knowledge  of  Grseco-Alexandrian  philosophy,  in  opposition 
to  which  he  sets  the  wisdom  derived  from  revelation. 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW 
TESTAMENT 

1.    CLASSIFICATION 

THE  New  Testament  Canon  may  be  divided  into  three  parts : 
historical,  didactic  and  prophetic.  The  historical  part  com- 
prises the  four  Gospels  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  the  didactic 
the  Epistles  written  by  the  apostles,  viz.  fourteen  by  Saint  Paul 
(Romans,  first  and  second  Corinthians,  first  and  second  Thessa- 
lonians,  Philippians,  Ephesians,  Colossians,  Galatians,  Philemon, 
first  and  second  Timothy,  Titus,  Hebrews),  and  seven  by  other 
apostles  (first  and  second  Peter,  first,  second  and  third  John, 
James,  Jude).  The  only  prophetic  book  of  the  New  Testament 
is  the  Apocalypse  of  Saint  John.  There  are  in  all  twenty-seven 
sacred  books. 


FIRST  SECTION 

HISTORICAL   BOOKS 

A.   THE   GOSPELS 
2.   THE  GOSPELS  IN  GENERAL 

1.  Name.  The  early  Christians  gave  the  name 
good  tidings,  the  account  of  life  everlasting,  forfeited  through 
Adam  and  restored  through  Christ.  The  Evangelium,  or  Gospel, 
is  therefore  the  news  of  the  Redemption  and  the  Redeemer, 
which  the  apostles  were  commissioned  by  Christ  to  make  known 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  As  all  our  Lord's  teaching  was  oral, 
they  understood  by  the  gospel  oral  instruction.  The  first  mean- 
ing of  the  word  gospel  was  therefore  the  oral  preaching  of  the 
apostles,  and  as,  with  reference  to  its  contents,  this  preaching 


THE    BOOKS    OF    THE    NEW   TESTAMENT      359 

was  unanimous,  people  knew  originally  of  only  one  gospel.  When 
the  preaching  of  some  of  the  apostles  was  written  down,  men 
began  to  speak  of  "gospels/'  but  the  various  gospels  were  re- 
garded only  as  various  versions  of  the  same  good  tidings,  viz. 
of  the  Redemption  by  Jesus  Christ.  One  original  gospel  un- 
derlies the  four  canonical  gospels,  the  first  three  of  which 
resemble  one  another  closely,  while  the  fourth  supplements 
them.  Like  the  written  gospels,  all  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament  are  based  upon  already  given  oral  teaching  concern- 
ing salvation. 

2.  Order    of   the    Books.     The   usual    arrangement    of   the 
gospels,  in  which  Matthew  always  stands  first,  then  Mark  and 
Luke,  and  lastly  John,  occurs  in  all  old  translations  and  in 
every  list  of  the  canonical  books,  and  in  most  Greek  manu- 
scripts.    Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  was  always  believed  to  be  the 
first,  and  Saint  John's  the  latest,  in  order  of  composition,  so 
that  the  gospels   are  placed  not  in   any  order  of  merit,  but 
according  to  their  age. 

3.  Origin.     In  examining  the  gospels  and  all  Holy  Scrip- 
ture, D.  Fr.  Strauss  and  his  followers,  and  especially  Renan, 
start  from  the  assumption  that  there  are  no  such  things  as 
miracles  or  prophecies,  and  that  therefore  all  accounts  of  such 
are  either  intentional  fictions,  or  legends,  which  in  course  of 
time  have  grown  up,  as  an  unhistorical  accretion,  round  an 
historical  fact.     It  is  often  asserted  that  the  gospels,  as  we 
know  them,  cannot  have  originated  in  the  first  century.     The 
apostles  or  their  pupils  may  have  perhaps  written  down  a  few 
statements  for  their  own  use,  and  have  left  these  to  their  fol- 
lowers, but  all  kinds  of  additions  had  been  made  before  these 
records  passed  into  use  among  Christians.1     F.  Chr.  Baur  (ob. 
1860)   was  willing  to  believe  that  intentional  falsification  and 
actual  deception  had  been  practiced.     At  the  present  time  the 
Rationalists  regard  the  growth  of  myths  as  an  important  factor. 
Harnack  is  of  opinion  that  Christ's  personality  made  so  great 
an  impression  upon  His  disciples,  and  awakened  such  enthu- 
siasm in  them,  that  they  imputed  to  him  fictitious  miracles 

1  Modern  criticism  is  busily  engaged  in  discovering  such  "  additions," 
"  misunderstandings  "  and  "  interpolations  "  in  almost  every  chapter. 


360    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

and  prophecies.  Jiilicher,  B.  Weiss,  Pfleiderer  and  others  pro- 
fess similar  views. 

All  these  assertions  may  be  disproved  (a)  by  internal  evi- 
dence, i.  e.  by  the  nature  of  the  gospels;  (&)  by  external  evidence, 
i.e.  by  documents  from  the  earliest  times  of  Christianity;  (c) 
by  the  history  of  the  text;  (d)  by  the  history  of  the  earliest 
Christian  communities. 

(a)  Internal  Evidence.  The  Greek  of  the  gospels,  abounding 
in  Hebraisms,  suggests  that  they  were  the  work  of  Greek-speak- 
ing Jews;  the  intimate  acquaintance  displayed  with  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  Holy  Land  indicates  that  the  .writers  were  natives 
of  Palestine;  their  knowledge  of  the  history  of  Palestine  in  the 
first  century  shows  that  they  were  contemporaries  of  Christ  and 
the  apostles. 

Linguistic  evidence.  Hebrew  is  on  the  whole  a  poor  language,  and 
this  poverty  reveals  itself  in  the  Greek  New  Testament.  If  Greek  writers 
in  the  second  century  had  composed  the  gospels,  they  would  have  used 
many  expressions  drawn  from  the  wealth  of  the  Greek  vocabulary,  where 
the  meager  Hebrew  makes  the  meaning  obscure.  For  instance,  instead 
of  "  to  see  life,"  they  would  have  said  "  to  enjoy  life  " ;  instead  of  "  love 
or  hate  a  master/'  they  would  have  said  "  prefer " ;  where  we  find 
"  heart,"  they  would  often  have  written  "  conscience  " ;  and  where  we 
read  "  flesh,"  they  would  have  put  "  body."  Only  two  authors  of  books 
in  the  New  Testament  have  a  less  Hebrew  and  more  Greek  coloring; 
they  are  Saint  Paul  and  Saint  Luke,  both  of  them  born  outside  Palestine. 

Geographical  evidence.  After  the  year  70  A.  D.  Palestine  was  practi- 
cally a  wilderness.  Fifty  towns  and  nearly  one  thousand  other  places 
were  completely  destroyed.  A  writer  living  a  century  later  would  not 
have  been  able  to  give  with  so  much  accuracy  the  names  of  so  many 
places,  their  distances  and  other  geographical  data. 

Historical  evidence.  Four  kings  named  Herod  are  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament:  Herod  I,  the  Great;  Herod  Antipas;  Herod  Agrippa  I, 
and  Herod  Agrippa  II.  Nowhere  in  the  gospels,  or  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment as  a  whole,  is  there  any  mistake  in  the  history  of  these  rulers.  It 
would  have  been  impossible  for  a  writer  of  not  much  education,  and 
living  a  century  later,  to  describe  the  events  of  their  reigns  so  correctly 
as  is  done  in  the  New  Testament.  After  the  death  of  Herod  the  Great, 
Palestine  was  divided  into  tetrarchies.  The  evangelists  know  this.  In 
Luke  iii.  we  hear  not  of  the  tetrarch  Archelaus,  but  of  the  procurator 
Pontius  Pilate;  the  author  knows  therefore  that  Archelaus  was  deposed, 
a  fact  which  a  later  writer  might  hardly  have  remembered.  Salome's 
dance  after  the  banquet  might  cause  surprise,  as  in  the  Holy  Land 
women  were  excluded  from  such  festivities,  but  just  at  that  time  dances 
were  common  at  the  conclusion  of  a  meal,  as  we  learn  from  Suetonius 
(Caligula,  c.  57;  Nero,  c.  54).  Herod  and  his  courtiers  belonged  to 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  361 

the  "  best "  Roman  society.  In  the  gospels  the  inhabitants  of  Palestine, 
the  relation  borne  by  the  Jews  to  the  Samaritans,  and  the  Jewish  sects 
are  depicted  exactly,  as  we  know  from  other  sources,  as  they  were  in  the 
first  century.  An  author  writing  a  hundred  years  after  the  time  of  our 
Lord  would  certainly  have  blundered.  The  tribute  in  the  Temple  was 
at  that  time  still  required  to  be  paid  in  Jewish  coinage,  although  Greek 
and  Roman  money  was  current  all  over  the  country.  A  later  author 
would  not  have  been  likely  to  know  this. 

In  Matt.  xx.  2,  a  denarius  is  mentioned  as  the  pay  of  a  day  laborer. 
In  the  time  of  Augustus  this  was  the  ordinary  sum,  but  later  the  value 
of  money  decreased  until  in  300  A.  D.  25  denarii  were  a  day's  wages. 

Hug  expresses  himself  in  similar  terms  on  the  subject  of  this  inter- 
nal evidence;  he  asks  if  any  one  unexpectedly  discovered  the  historical 
books  of  the  New  Testament  without  previously  knowing  anything  about 
them,  and  if,  being  equipped  with  the  necessary  training,  he  opened  them, 
what  opinion  would  he  form  of  their  origin,  age  and  authorship?  He 
would  say :  "  They  are  written  in  Greek,  in  fact  in  a  degenerate  sort  of 
Greek  that  is  very  suggestive  of  Hebrew.  We  seem  forced  to  think  that 
the  authors  were  Greek-speaking  Jews.  They  are  written  with  no  regard 
to  elegance  of  style;  the  authors  must  have  been  common  people,  who 
show  no  sign  of  education  or  literary  training  beyond  having  read  some 
Jewish  books.  The  Jewish  State  is  everywhere  represented  as  still  ex- 
isting. The  story  is  told  in  such  a  way  as  to  prove  the  authors  to  have 
seen  and  heard  the  things  that  they  record.  .  .  .  Throughout  we  can 
perceive  a  very  precise  .knowledge  of  facts  and  perfect  familiarity  with 
the  period  to  which  the  life  of  Christ  belongs;  such  knowledge  can  be 
expected  only  of  contemporaries.  .  .  .  The  more  we  examine  the  gospel 
story  in  detail,  the  more  do  we  find  revealed  what  we  know  from  other 
sources  respecting  the  character  of  the  Pharisees,  Sadducees  and  Samari- 
tans, and  the  Roman  system  of  farming  taxes,  with  all  its  attendant  op- 
pression. Reference  is  made  to  Greek  and  Roman  coins  as  well  as  to 
early  Jewish  money." 

(b)  External  Evidence.  The  assertion  that  no  proof  of  the 
existence  of  the  gospels  before  the  year  150  can  be  found  is 
now  seldom  heard.  It  is  acknowledged  that  they  must  have  been 
written,  in  the  form  in  which  we  have  them,  before  the  year  HO.1 
Ignatius,  Polycarp  and  other  apostolic  fathers  not  only  quote 
passages  from  the  gospels,2  but  Justin  Martyr,  in  his  first 
"Apology,"3  written  about  150,  refers  expressly  (chapter  67) 

1  Jiilicher  supposes  that  Christ's  words  and  deeds  were  handed  down 
orally  between  the  years  30  and  60;     that  the  synoptic  gospels  were 
written  between  60  and  100;    the  fourth  gospel  is  not  the  work  of  an 
eyewitness,  but  was  composed  after  100  A.D.,  in  accordance  with  a  defi- 
nite design. 

2  For  details,  see  the  separate  gospels. 

8  J.  A.  Cramer  tries  to  show  that  various  extraneous  additions  have 
been  made  to  this  apology,  and  that  especially  chapter  67  is  not  genu- 


362    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

to  the  "memoirs  of  the  apostles,  that  are  called  gospels,"  and 
states  that  they  were  read  aloud  regularly  at  public  worship. 
According  to  this  author,  therefore,  the  Christians  used  these 
gospels  constantly,  and  knew  their  contents  well,  so  that  it 
would  have  been  impossible  to  alter  and  falsify  them,  or  to  set 
new  or  forged  gospels  in  circulation. 

Not  long  ago  the  "  Apology  "  of  a  Greek  philosopher  named 
Aristides  was  discovered.1  According  to  Eusebius  (Hist.  EccL, 
IV,  iii.  3,  Chron.  ad  ann.  2140),  this  "Apology"  was  dedicated 
to  the  Emperor  Hadrian  (117-138),  but  most  likely  it  was  to  his 
successor  Antoninus  Pius  (138-161).  In  it  (II,  6,  7)  Aristides 
writes  thus:  "Jesus  the  Messias  is  called  the  Son  of  the  Most 
High  God,  and  it  is  said  that  He  came  down  from  heaven 
through  the  Holy  Ghost,  took  and  put  on  flesh  from  a  Hebrew 
maiden,  and  the  Son  of  God  dwelt  in  the  daughter  of  man.  This 
is  taught  in  what  they  [the  Christians]  term  the  Gospel,  which 
was  preached  not  long  ago,  and  if  you  read  it,  you  will  recognize 
the  force  that  there  is  in  it." 

Tatian's  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  called  SiaTea-crdp&v,,  is  a 
proof  that  in  170  the  four  gospels  not  only  existed,  but  had  long 
been  recognized  as  sacred  books.2  Still  older  is  the  Syriac  trans- 
lation of  the  gospels  contained  in  the  Lewis  Codex,  that  was 
discovered  in  1892  (supra,  p.  245). 

(c)  History  of  the  Text.    The  oldest  texts  of  the  Bible  that 
have  come  down  to  us,  Greek,  Latin,  Syriac,  etc.,  all  show  un- 
mistakable traces  of  being  based  upon  older  documents,  some 
of    which   must   have   been   earlier   than   the  second   century. 
Tischendorf  has  proved  this  in  his  work:   Wann  wurden  unsere 
Evangelien  verfasst?  Leipzig,  fourth  edition,   1880. 

(d)  The  Earliest  Communities.     At  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century  the  Christians  were  not  isolated  individuals,  left 
to  look  after  themselves,  but  they  lived  in  well-organized  commu- 

ine.  Even  if  this  were  the  case,  it  would  still  be  true  that  Justin  men- 
tions facts  in  our  Lord's  life  recorded  by  the  synoptic  writers,  and  that 
he  speaks  of  the  Logos  in  terms  suggestive  of  Saint  John. 

1  Seeberg  is  of  opinion  that  this  "Apology"  was  not  written  until 
140,  and  was  dedicated  therefore  to  Antoninus  Pius. 

2  Ciasca,  Evangeliorum  harmonic?  arabice  et  latine,  Romse,  1888.    See 
p.  210. 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT   363 

nities,  under  rules  and  teachers,,  who  protected  them  from  all 
dangers  to  their  faith.  This  appears  from  the  epistles  of  the 
apostles,  which  are  universally  received  as  genuine,  and  from  the 
writings  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers.  According  to  these  docu- 
ments, innovations  in  matters  affecting  the  faith  were  regarded 
with  suspicion  and  accepted  with  the  greatest  caution  among  the 
Christian  communities.  Forged  epistles  and  forged  gospels  could 
not  find  admission  or  credence  among  them.  Marcion,  who 
wished  to  alter  Saint  Luke's  Gospel  in  142,  met  with  the  keenest 
opposition,  as  we  learn  from  Tertullian's  work  Adv.  Marcion. 

In  answer  to  this  testimony  nothing  can  be  alleged  against  the  histori- 
cal character  of  the  gospels,  except  that,  "at  the  present  time,  the  accounts 
of  our  Lord's  miracles  are  not  adapted  to  secure  for  Him  any  special 
importance,  as  all  depends  upon  what  He  taught  rather  than  upon  what 
He  did.  The  miracles  therefore,  as  owing  their  origin  merely  to  the 
'  enthusiasm '  of  the  disciples,  would  have  to  be  eliminated  from  the 
gospels  (Harnack).  In  particular  the  virgin  birth  of  Christ,  the  inter- 
vention of  angels  during  His  childhood,  the  Temptation,  all  the  miracles 
of  His  active  life,  and  the  Resurrection  .  .  .  must  be  regarded  as  late 
interpolations  in  the  account  of  His  presumably  Messianic  work."  There 
is,  however,  no  proof  at  all  that  the  miracles  are  fictitious. 

4.  The  accounts  of  the  four  evangelists  may  best  be  harmon- 
ized, and  a  lifelike  picture  of  our  Saviour  can  best  be  produced, 
if  we  take  as  our  basis  the  fourth  gospel  and  four  paschal  festi- 
vals during  His  public  life  (John  ii.  13;  v.  1;  vi.  4;  xi.  55), 
and  fit  into  this  framework  first  Saint  Luke's  account,  —  for  he 
says  (i.  1)  that  he  states  events  in  chronological  order,  —  and 
then  those  of  Saint  Matthew  and  Saint  Mark.  Saint  Matthew 
often  departs  from  the  chronological  order,  for  he  had  another 
object  in  writing  (see  page  365). 

Both  in  ancient  and  modern  times  attempts  have  been  made  to  show 
that  the  public  life  of  Christ  lasted  only  one  year.1 

Reasons  for  this  theory,  ( 1 )  In  Isaias'  prophecy,  Ixi.  2,  one  year  and 
one  day  are  mentioned.  The  prophet,  speaking  as  a  type  of  the  Messias, 


1  J.  van  Bebber.  His  views  were  accepted  fully  by  J.  E.  Belser.  E. 
Nagl  showed  that  no  tradition  from  apostolic  times  exists,  but  that  from 
Holy  Scripture  it  is  extremely  probable  that  our  Lord's  active  life 
lasted  three  years.  L.  Fendt  believes  that  the  active  life  lasted  only  one 
year,  but  he  does  not  state  this  as  a  definite  conclusion.  J.  B.  Zellinger 
thinks  that  it  must  be  assumed  to  have  lasted  two  years. 


364    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

says:  "He  hath  sent  me  ...  to  proclaim  the  acceptable  year  of  the 
Lord  [reference  to  the  year  of  Jubilee]  and  the  day  of  vengeance  [day 
of  judgment]."  In  Luke  iv.  19  our  Lord  quotes  this  passage  and  applies 
it  to  Himself.  He  says  (John  viii.  56)  :  "Abraham  .  .  .  rejoiced  that 
he  might  see  my  day."  ( John  xi.  9 )  :  "  Are  there  not  twelve  hours  of 
the  day?  "  (John  ix.  4)  :  "I  must  work  .  .  .  whilst  it  is  day."  Caiphas 
is  spoken  of  as  "  the  high  priest  that  year"  (John  xi.  49),  i.  e.  the  year 
of  our  Lord's  active  life. 

In  support  of  this  theory  it  is  said  that  we  hear  of  only  two  Paschs  in 
our  Lord's  public  life  (John  ii.  13  and  xi.  55).  In  John  v.  i.,  where  we 
read :  "  After  these  things  was  a  festival  day  of  the  Jews,  and  Jesus  went 
up  to  Jerusalem,"  the  festival  may  have  been  Purim  or  Pentecost.  In 
John  vi.  4  the  words  rb  irciffxa  are  believed  to  be  an  interpolation.  These 
assumptions  are  not,  however,  well  founded.  ( 1 )  In  John  v.  1  we  must 
understand  the  Pasch,  because  shortly  before  ( iv.  35 )  we  read  that  there 
were  still  four  months  to  harvest,  which  began  with  the  Pasch.  The 
words  rb  iraffxa  are  found  in  John  vi.  4  in  all  old  manuscripts  and  trans- 
lations, and  the  Codex  Sin.  Syr.  that  belongs  to  the  first  half  of  the 
second  century  has  "  the  feast  of  the  unleavened  "  in  this  place. 

( 2 )  If  the  literal  meaning  of  "  year  "  or  "  day  "  is  to  be  pressed,  we 
may  with  equal  right  refer  to  our  Lord's  words  in  Luke  xiii.  7 :    "  For 
these  three  years  I  come  seeking  fruit  on  this  fig-tree,"  i.  e.  on  the  people 
of  Israel.     Cf.  also  Luke  xiii.  32 :  "  to-day  and  to-morrow  and  the  third 
day." 

(3)  It  seems  impossible  that  all  the  events  recorded  in  the  four  gospels 
took  place  in  one  year.     The  apostles  must  have  been  gradually  led  to 
understand  the  dignity  of  our  Lord  Himself  and  His  kingdom.    He  often 
complained  of  the  weakness  of  their  faith  and  the  dullness  of  their  minds, 
and  if  He  had  been  crucified  so  soon  after  His  first  appearance,  His  dis- 
ciples would  probably  have  lost  faith  in  Him;    the  world  would  not  have 
been   transformed   and  Judaism   and  heathendom   overthrown  by   their 
preaching.     If  only  one  gospel  existed,  it  might  be  possible  to  regard 
one  year  as  covering  the  whole  of  our  Lord's  active  life,  but  taking 
them  collectively,  they  contain  so  much  that  a  longer  period  is  plainly 
necessary. 

(4)  Knabenbauer  aptly  refers  to  our  Lord's  words  in  Matt,  xxiii.  37: 
"Jerusalem,  .  .  .  how  often  would  I  have  gathered  together  thy  chil- 
dren, .  .  .  and  thou  wouldest  not?"     According  to   Belser   our  Lord 
spent  no  more  than  eight  days  in  all  at  Jerusalem. 

An  appeal  is  made  sometimes  to  the  views  of  early  Christian  writers. 
Belser  says :  "  The  Fathers  and  authors  of  the  ancient  Church  almost 
without  exception  believe  that  Christ's  activity  lasted  only  one  year." 
This  opinion,  however,  was  by  no  means  universal.  It  was  received  by 
the  followers  of  Valentinus,  but  they  were  opposed  by  Irenaeus,  one  of  the 
earliest  witnesses,  being  a  pupil  of  Poly  carp,  Saint  John's  disciple  (Iren., 
Adv.  Hcer.,  II,  xxii.  3).  Theodoretus  of  Cyrus  (in  Dan.  ix.)  refers  to  the 
Messianic  prophecy  of  the  seventy  weeks  of  years,  after  which  redemption 
is  to  come.  The  allusion  to  the  half  week  of  years,  which  led  up  to  the 
Redeemer's  death,  is  decisive  in  favor  of  our  Lord's  active  life  having 
lasted  three  and  a  half  years.  "  From  Saint  John's  Gospel  it  appears 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  365 

that  the  Lord  spent  three  years  and  a  half  in  preaching,  in  instructing 
the  disciples  and  strengthening  their  faith  by  miracles,  and  then  He 
suffered."  Eusebius  (Demonstr.  Ev.  Lib.,  8)  appeals  to  "the  tradition 
that  the  period  of  teaching  and  miracles  in  our  Redeemer's  life  lasted 
three  and  a  half  years,  for  this  is  half  a  week  of  years,  and  this  is 
apparent  especially  in  Saint  John's  Gospel." 


The  Gospel  according  to  Saint  Matthew 
(28  chapters) 

3.   CONTENTS,  PURPOSE  AND  ARRANGEMENT 

The  first  volume  contains  three  parts:  (1)  Our  Lord's  child- 
hood, (2)  His  life  and  miracles  in  Galilee,  (3)  His  Passion  and 
Death. 

In  the  introduction  (chapter  i.,  ii.)  an  account  is  given  of  the  child- 
hood of  Christ  (Genealogy,  the  Magi,  Flight  into  Egypt,  Massacre  of 
the  Innocents,  Return).  The  author  then  passes  on  to  Christ's  public 
life  ( iii.-xviii. ) ,  the  preparation  for  which  were  His  baptism  and  temp- 
tation (iii.).  He  describes  Christ's  first  appearance  in  public,  his  pre- 
liminary choice  of  apostles  ( iv. ) ,  and  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  ( v.-vii. ) . 
Some  miracles  of  healing,  and  the  raising  of  Jairus'  daughter  are  re- 
corded (viii.,  ix.),  and  the  experimental  sending  out  of  the  apostles  (x.). 

Chapters  xi.  and  xii.  deal  with  Christ's  relations  with  John  the  Baptist 
and  with  the  Pharisees,  chapter  xiii.  contains  parables  about  the  new 
kingdom  of  God.  The  next  three  chapters,  xiv.-xvi.,  contain  the  instruc- 
tions given  to  the  apostles,  who  are  to  be  the  rulers  of  the  new  Mes- 
sianic kingdom  (feeding  of  five  thousand,  walking  on  the  sea,  eating 
with  unwashed  hands,  the  Chanaanite  woman,  miracles  of  healing,  second 
feeding  of  a  multitude,  request  for  a  sign,  Saint  Peter's  confession). 
In  chapters  xvii.  and  xviii.  Christ  is  gradually  preparing  the  disciples  for 
the  necessity  of  His  death  (prophecy  regarding  it,  transfiguration,  the 
lunatic  boy,  second  prophecy  of  his  death,  teaching  about  humility  and 
scandal).  The  history  of  Christ's  sufferings  now  begins.  Chapters  xix. 
and  xx.,  journey  to  Judea  and  the  teaching  given  on  the  way  (marriage, 
the  rich  young  man,  workers  in  the  vineyard,  third  prophecy  of  the  passion, 
Salome's  request ) .  Chapters  xxi.-xxv.,  entry  into  Jerusalem,  dispute  with 
the  Pharisees,  parables  containing  warnings  (wise  and  foolish  virgins, 
talents),  teaching  concerning  the  judgment.  The  last  three  chapters 
(xxvi.-xxviii.)  record  the  institution  of  the  Eucharist,  the  Passion, 
Death  and  Resurrection  of  Christ. 

In  the  arrangement  of  his  materials  the  evangelist  had  a 
particular  aim  in  view,  viz.  to  adapt  his  book  to  serve  Jews 
by  birth  as  proof  of  Christ's  being  the  Messias.  It  is  obviously 


366    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OP  THE  BIBLE 

intended  for  people  well  acquainted  with  the  Old  Testament,  and 
for  this  reason  it  refers  frequently  to  the  Old  Testament  prophe- 
cies and  types,  pointing  out  how  they  have  been  fulfilled  in 
Christ.1  The  author  has  to  some  extent  sacrificed  chronological 
order  to  his  desire  to  display  Christ  as  the  Messias,  long  foretold 
but  rejected  by  the  ruling  class  among  the  Jews.  He  says  very 
little  about  our  Lord's  work  in  Judea,  where  the  influence  of  the 
Synedrium  prevented  Him  from  being  welcomed,  and  where  He 
found  few  followers.  But  we  have  a  full  account  of  His  successful 
Messianic  activity  in  Galilee,  which  had  been  foretold  by  Isaias,  ix. 
1,  etc.  This  was  insulting  to  the  capital  and  the  Temple,  and  to 
the  Jewish  priesthood,  which,  being  blinded  by  pride,  anticipated 
not  a  poor  but  a  politically  powerful  Messias,  who  should  estab- 
lish the  throne  of  David  in  Jerusalem.  To  shame  the  unbelief 
of  these  men  the  Messias  withdrew  almost  completely  from  the 
capital,  and  only  went  thither  to  die,  on  the  throne  of  the  Cross. 
Most  of  His  followers  were  Galileans;  the  writer  of  the  gospel 
had  probably  preached  in  Galilee,  and  composed  it  primarily  for 
Galileans.  Traditon  declares  the  author  to  have  been  Saint 
Matthew  the  apostle. 

4.  SAINT  MATTHEW  THE  APOSTLE 

Before  our  Saviour  took  him  as  a  companion,  Matthew  had 
been  a  tax  collector  at  Capharnaum  on  the  Lake  of  Genesareth, 
and  was  probably  very  wealthy  (Luke  v.  27).  His  name  is  the 
seventh  in  the  lists  of  apostles  given  in  Mark  iii.  and  Luke  vi., 
but  it  is  the  eighth  in  the  first  gospel  (x.),  as  there  that  of  Saint 
Thomas  precedes  it.  His  call  is  recorded  in  the  first  three 
gospels  (Matt,  ix.,  Mark  ii.,  Luke  v.),  but  in  Mark  and  Luke 
the  name  of  the  man  called  is  given  as  Levi,  son  of  Alpheus, 
whilst  it  is  given  as  Matthew  only  in  the  first.  As  all  the  cir- 
cumstances are  identical  in  the  three  accounts,  we  cannot  doubt 
that  Matthew  is  the  same  person  as  Levi.  After  his  call,  in  his 
joy  and  gratitude,  Levi  may  have  changed  his  name  to  Matthew 
(i.  e.  probably  "gift  of  God").  It  was  not  unusual  for  Jews  to 

1  Cf.  i.  23-ii.  15,  23-iv.  14-viii.  17-xiii.  14.  Especially  in  the  account 
of  the  Passion,  xxi.  4-xxvi.  24,  54,  56-xxvii.  9,  35. 


THE    BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT      367 

change  their  names.  The  New  Testament  tells  us  nothing  as 
to  his  later  history.  According  to  tradition  he  was  engaged 
for  twelve  years  in  preaching  the  gospel  to  his  countrymen  in 
Judea,1  and  then  went  on  to  the  Gentiles.  He  is  believed  to 
have  been  particularly  active  in  Ethiopia,  as  the  Koman  Breviary 
states;  and  he  is  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  there.2 


5.   AUTHENTICITY  OF  THE  GOSPEL 

If  traces  of  the  author  be  sought  in  the  gospel  itself  (in- 
ternal evidence),  they  will  be  found  to  be  very  slight  and  not 
perfectly  certain.  It  is  striking  that  in  the  list  of  apostles  in 
chapter  x.  the  humiliating  designation  of  " publican"  follows 
the  name  of  Matthew;  also  that  in  this  list  Matthew  is  the 
eighth  name.,  whereas  it  is  the  seventh  in  Mark  and  Luke. 
Moreover,  Mark  and  Luke  both  record  the  great  feast  given  to 
our  Lord  and  His  friends  by  the  publican  after  his  call,  whereas 
in  the  first  gospel  the  feast  is  mentioned  only  incidentally,  and 
the  giver  of  it  is  not  named.  The  inference  is  that  the  writer 
of  the  gospel  put  himself  in  the  background  from  motives  of 
humility  and  modesty. 

External  evidence  is  much  stronger. 

(a)  Papias  (75-150),  a  disciple  of  Saint  John  the  Apostle, 
and  bishop  of  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia,  says  that  Matthew  wrote 
a  history  of  Christ  in  Hebrew:  Margate?  IJLCV  ovv  effpai'Si, 
Sia\€KT<t)  TO,  \oyca  rov  KVpiov  ffweypd^aTO,  qpfjujvevae  Se  avra 
a>5  TJV  SvvaTos  etfaoro?.8 

(&)    In  the  same  way  Irenseus  (Adv.  Hcer.,  Ill,  I).4    Clement 

1  Euseb.,  Hist.  Eccl,  V,  18. 

2  By  Ethiopia  we  should  probably  understand  a  district  in  what  is 
now  Armenia. 

3  Euseb.,  Hist.  Eccl,  III,  39.     The  work  of  Papias   (\oyiwv  KvpiaKtiv 
efry-flffeis)    is  no  longer  extant.     The  last  words  of  the  quotation  refer 
to  Gentile  Christian  readers. 

*  Irenseus,  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  was  a  disciple  of  Saint  John's 
follower  Polycarp.  He  was  bishop  of  Lugdunum  (Lyons)  in  Gaul  from 
177  to  202,  the  year  of  his  death.  He  says:  '0  ptv  ST)  Martfatoj  fr  rots 
"Eftpalois  r$  ISla  avr&v  8ta\fKry  ypa^ty  tt-fyeyKev  evayyeXlov  rov  Rtrpov  Kal  rov 
Hav\ov  £v  'Pc^/ifl  evayyeXifofjifrbiv  Kal  BefMcXtovvruv  TT\V  £KK\Tjfflav.  Merct  5£  rty 
rovruv  ZJ-odov  MC£/J/COS,  6  fJiad'irrTjs  nal  tyft-qvevTr)?  Utrpov,  Kal  avrbs  ra  vtrb  Utrpov 


368    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

of  Alexandria  (Strom,.,  I,  21),  Origen  (ap.  Euseb.,  Hist.  Eccl., 
VI,  25)  and  Tertullian  (De  Came  Christi,  22),  all  mention 
Matthew  as  the  author  of  a  gospel. 

(c)  Quotations  from  the  first  gospel  occur  in  still  earlier 
writers.     Ignatius  (Ad  E  plies.,  XIX)  speaks  of  the  appearance 
of  the  star  at  the  coming  of  the  Magi,  and  this  is  recorded 
nowhere  but  in  Matthew  ii.     Polycarp  (Ep.,  c.  2)  quotes  from 
the  Sermon  on  the  Mount   (Matt,  v.-viii.).     Justinus   (Dial., 
100)    says   emphatically  that   Saint   Peter's  confession    (Matt. 
xvi.  16)   exists  in  writing,  thus  referring  to  a  book  recognized 
as   sacred.     Very   many  quotations,   chiefly  from  the   Sermon 
on  the  Mount,  occur  in  the  Didache  or  teaching  of  the  apostles, 
compiled  in  the  first  century  (cf.  supra,  p.  210). 

(d)  The  earliest  heretics,  too,1  especially  the  gnostics  Basil- 
ides  and  Valentine,  who  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  second 
century,  quote  passages  from  this  gospel. 

(e)  It  is  quoted  also  by  Celsus,  a  pagan  and  bitter  opponent 
of  Christianity,  who  lived  in  the  second  century  under  Marcus 
Aurelius.     His  attack  upon  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  shows  that 
it  was  recognized  by  the  Christians  as  a  canonical  book.2 

6.   OBJECTIONS 

It  is  only  since  1824  that  the  authenticity  of  the  first  gospel 
has  been  denied.  The  allegations  against  it  are: 

1.  That  the  gospel  contains  what  is  legendary,  composed 
with  reference  to  passages  in  the  Old  Testament,  e.  g.  ii.  1-1 8,3 

K7]pvff(T6fj,€va.  £yypd<pd)$  ijfuv  irap£d(i)Kev,  Aou/cas  5£,  6  d,KO\ov8bs  IlaiJXou,  rb  inr1  tuflvov 
Kr)pvff<r6fj.evoi>  evayytXiov  tv  fiifiXLy  Kartdero  ( apud  Euseb.,  Hist.  EccL,  V,  X.  3 ) . 

1  Tanta  autem  est  circa  evangelia  hcec  firmitas,  ut  et  ipsi  hceretici 
testimonium  reddant  eis.    Irenseus,  Adv.  Hcer.,  Ill,  xi.  7. 

2  This  writer  is  known  only  from  Origen's  eight  books  against  him. 
The  conviction  of  the  apostolic  origin  of  this  gospel  must  have  been  so 
deeply  rooted  in  ancient  times  that  even  so  malicious  and  crafty  an 
antagonist  as  Celsus  did  not  dare  to  deny  its  authenticity,  but  used  its 
contents   in  his   polemic   against  the   Christians.     It  would  have   been 
both  simpler  and  more  effective  to  say  that  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Christians  were  not  genuine,  if  he  had  been  in  a  position  to  point  out 
any  falsification  or  deception  in  them. 

8  According  to  one  critic  the  story  of  the  Magi  is  mythical,  and  has 
been  developed  out  of  a  journey  made  in  66  B.  c.  by  Tiridates,  an  Asiatic, 


THE   BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT      369 

xxi.  5  (cf.  Zach.  ix.  9),  xxvii.  9  (cf.  Jer.  xxxii.  6,  xviii.  2, 
etc.;  Zach.  xi.  12),  and  is  moreover  not  written  in  so  detailed 
and  vivid  a  style  as  we  should  expect  from  an  eyewitness. 
These  are  arbitrary  assertions,  without  any  solid  foundation. 
The  statement  that  the  stories  are  fabulous  and  purely  imagi- 
nary could  have  weight  only  if  the  impossibility  of  miracles 
and  prophecies  could  be  proved.  The  other  assertion,  that  an 
eyewitness  would  have  written  otherwise,  appears  groundless 
when  we  bear  in  mind  the  purpose  and  task  of  the  evangelist, 
who  did  not  aim  at  being  an  historian  so  much  as  at  proving 
Christ  to  be  the  Messias,  and  who  systematically  kept  that  end 
in  view. 

2.  "All  positive  evidence  of  the  authenticity  of  Saint 
Matthew's  Gospel  is  based  upon  the  testimony  of  Papias.  This 
is  untrustworthy,  because,  according  to  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl., 
Ill,  40),  Papias  was  a  very  simple  man,  who  probably  let 
himself  be  deceived  by  heretical  Jewish  Christians,  if  they 
showed  him  a  Hebrew  book  and  said  it  was  the  gospel  of 
Saint  Matthew.  Moreover,  his  words  do  not  refer  to  our 
gospel,  but  only  to  a  collection  of  Christ's  sayings  (  \oyia  )  ."  x 
In  answer  we  may  say  (a)  that  Papias'  testimony  is  by  no 
means  the  only  statement  in  support  of  later  evidence.  Irenaeus 
says  more  than  Papias,  for  he  implies  that  Matthew  wrote  his 
gospel  in  Palestine,  whilst  Peter  and  Paul,  the  chief  apostles, 
were  preaching  in  Koine,  so  that  their  gospels  originated  in 
that  city.  Origen  never  mentions  Papias,  and  seems  to  have 
had  no  knowledge  of  his  writings;  he  appeals  for  confirma- 
tion of  his  statements,  not  to  Papias,  but  to  tradition  —  "&>?  ev 


(b)  It  is  true  that  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl.,  Ill,  40)  describes 
Papias  as  a-^dSpa  cr/ju/cpbs  TOP  vovv,  but  this  unfavorable 
opinion  refers  not  to  his  character  and  trustworthiness,  but 
to  his  Chiliastic  views.  A  man  who  was  a  bishop  and  a  pupil 
of  the  apostles  must  have  had  common  sense  enough  not  to 

to  Rome,  to  visit  the  Emperor  Nero.  Dio  Cassius  gives  an  account  of  it 
in  Book  Ixiii.  1-7.  He  came  with  a  large  escort  and  did  homage  to  Nero. 
But  how  different  are  the  two  stories! 

1  Thus  Schleiermacher,  Harnack  and  others. 


370    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLR 

have  allowed  himself  simply  to  be  deceived  in  a  matter  where 
the  most  superficial  investigation  would  have  sufficed  to  reveal 
the  truth. 

(c)  The  word  \6yta  does  not  necessarily  mean  a  mere  col- 
lection of  speeches.  This  is  plain  from  Papias,  who  says  that 
Saint  Mark  wrote  down  the  words  and  deeds  of  Christ,  and 
that  his  record 1  is  called  /cvpiaicol  \dyoi.2  Moreover,  Papias 
named  his  own  book  \oyicov  icvpiaicwv  egrjyija-eis,  although  it 
must  have  contained  accounts  of  events  as  well  as  speeches. 
Finally  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  even  later  often  allude  to 
Holy  Scripture,  and  especially  to  the  gospels,  as  \6yia  rov 
Kvpiov*  just  as  we  still  occasionally  speak  of  the  gospels  as 
the  Word  of  God,  for  they  contain  more  speeches  and  instruc- 
tions than  records  of  events.4 


7.   HEADERS 

Saint  Matthew  wrote  his  gospel  primarily  for  Northern 
Palestine,  where  our  Lord  had  been  particularly  active,  and 
secondarily  for  the  communities  of  Jewish  Christians  through- 
out Palestine.  This  may  be  inferred  partially  from  the  con- 
tents. The  author  deems  it  unnecessary  to  give  his  readers 
any  information  regarding  the  geography,  the  provincial  pecu- 
liarities, the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Jews,  although  the 
other  evangelists  tell  us  a  good  deal  on  these  points  (e.  g. 
Mark  v.  41,  vii.  3;  Luke  i.  26,  vi.  4;  John  ii.  6,  xi.  18). 

1  Corresponding  to  the  Hebrew  word  dabar,  which  designates  both 
the  word  and  the  subject-matter.     Cf.  dibre  hajjamim  =  chronicles. 
3  Euseb.,  Hist.  EccL,  III,  39. 

3  Clem.  Rom.,  Ep.  I  ad  Cor.,  53. 

4  In  1897  it  was  reported  that  Papias'  important  work  on  the  "  Say- 
ings  of  Jesus "   had  been   recovered  in  the   course   of   excavations   in 
Egypt.    This  was  a  mistake.    All  that  was  found  was  one  sheet  of  papy- 
rus measuring  about  6  inches  by  3*4  inches,  and  containing  six  phrases 
very  like   those  recorded  in  the  canonical  gospels.     It   dates   probably 
from  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  and  so  can  have  nothing  to  do 
with  Papias.    The  discoverers  (Grenfell  and  Hunt)  published  their  find 
in  a  little  work  with  the  title:  A6yia  JIfl<rov,  "  Sayings  of  our  Lord,"  Lon- 
don, 1897  (see  supra,  p.  239).    In  1904  the  same  scholars  discovered  some 
further  \6yia  at  Oxyrhynchus,  which  they  published  as  "  New  Sayings  of 
Jesus,"  London  (Bibl.  Ztschr.,  1905,  pp.  176,  222). 


PALESTINE, 

IN  THE  TIME  OF  CHRIST. 

Bullish  Miles 


.ar«»^  •      SJ"Wto>)  Bi1 

'      ;" 


THE   BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT     371 

The  frequent  references  to  the  Old  Testament,  that  have  al- 
ready been  mentioned,  show  that  the  writer  assumed  his  readers 
to  be  well  acquainted  with  it.  In  the  first  gospel  there  are 
over  seventy  quotations  from  it,  more  than  in  the  other  three 
together,  and  the  quotations  are  not  merely  from  the  Greek, 
but  they  often  show  a  special  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  text 
(e.g.  iv.  15,  16;  cf.  Is.  viii.  23,  ix.  1).  The  other  evangelists 
use  the  Septuagint  exclusively.  The  gospel  gives  altogether 
the  impression  of  being  a  work  intended  for  Jews,  or  rather 
Jewish  Christians.  External  evidence  adds  certainty  to  this 
supposition.  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl.,  Ill,  24)  states  that  Saint 
Matthew,  having  labored  long  amongst  his  fellow  countrymen 
in  Palestine,  determined  to  go  to  other  nations,  but  before 
leaving  the  Jews,  he  wrote  down  for  them  his  gospel,  i.  e.  the 
tidings  that  he  had  preached  regarding  the  Messias,  to  make 
what  compensation  he  could  for  his  absence.1  Saint  Jerome 
(De  Vir.  Illustr.,  Ill)  says  that  Saint  Matthew,  first  in  the 
land  of  the  Jews,  wrote  the  gospel  of  Christ  for  the  Jews 
who  had  accepted  the  faith.  Similar  statements  occur  in  the 
earlier  writers:  Irenaeus,2  Origen,3  Tertullian,  Gregory  Nazian- 
zen  and  John  Chrysostom.4 

8.   LANGUAGE 

Saint  Matthew  wrote  his  gospel  in  the  language  commonly 
spoken  in  Palestine  at  that  time,  viz.  in  the  Chaldee  or  Aramaic 
dialect,  which  is  called  Hebrew  in  the  New  Testament.  Just 
as  the  Targumim  were  necessary  in  the  case  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, so  an  Aramaic  text  was  indispensable  when  the  gospel 
had  to  be  read  at  public  worship.  This  fact  has  been  much 


1  Marflcuos  .   .   .  irpdrepov  'Efipalois  Kijptij-as,   ws  ^eXAe?  nal  e<p'  £r£povs  itvai, 

htbrrr]   ypcupT)   Trapadobs   rb   /car'   avrbv  evayytXiov   rb  \eiirov  rrj   aurov 
irapovffiq.  Totfrots,  a<j>   Siv  ^<rrAXeTO,  dia  TTJS  ypa<f>TJs  dveirX^pov. 

2  Adv.  Hcer.,  Ill,  i.  1.     "Matthew  published  among  the  Hebrews  an 
evangelical  work  in  their  language.     Cf.  supra,  p.  367. 

3  According  to  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl.,  VI,  xxv.  4)  Origin  said  that  this 
gospel  was  written  for  the  Jewish  Christians    (rots    airb    TOV    'Ioi/5aib>ioO 


*  For  the  precise  words  of  each  writer  see  Reithmayr,  Einl.  in  d. 
N.  T.,  353,  etc. 


372    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

questioned  in  recent  times,  especially  by  Protestants.  Erasmus 
of  Rotterdam  was  the  first  to  deny  it  and  to  pronounce  the 
Greek  to  be  the  original.  L.  Hug  is  of  the  same  opinion,  es- 
pecially because  Greek  was  well  understood  in  Palestine.  But 
all  the  evidence  of  Christian  antiquity  is  unanimous  in  stating 
that  the  original  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  was  in  Hebrew.1 
Papias  learnt  it  from  John  the  Presbyter  in  Ephesus  (Euseb., 
Hist.  Eccl.,  III,  39) ;  Irenseus  and  Origen  say  the  same  (see 
supra,  page  367).  Eusebius  gives  the  further  information 
(Hist.  Eccl.,  V,  10)  that  Pantasnus,  head  of  the  school  of 
catechists  at  Alexandria  (179-212),  had  found  the  Hebrew 
original  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  in  India,  i.  e.  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Arabia.  Important  evidence  in  support  of  the  truth 
of  these  statements  is  furnished  by  the  fact  that  the  Jewish 
Christians  certainly  possessed  a  Hebrew  gospel,  called  Evange- 
lium  ad  Hebrceos.  Some  of  the  remaining  fragments  of  it  bear 
considerable  resemblance  to  our  gospel,  but  it  appears  to  have 
been  shorter.2  The  Hebrew  original  has  perished,  and  the  Church 
knows  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  only  in  Greek.  No  certain  an- 
swer can  be  given  to  the  question  who  translated  the  Hebrew 
into  Greek.  Ancient  writers  were  at  a  loss  on  this  subject  and 
acknowledged  their  ignorance.3  Some  think  that  not  only  the 
original  but  also  the  translation  ought  to  be  ascribed  to  Saint 
Matthew;  others  say  Saint  Mark;  and  Saint  James  the  Less, 
bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  Saint  John  the  Apostle  might  also 

1  Kaulen  and  Schegg  are  inclined  to  think  that  it  was  in  ancient 
Hebrew,  and  Resch  agrees  with  them   (Gebh.  u.  Harnack,  Texte  u.  Unt., 
X,  i.,  p.   107).     Comely  believes  it  was  in,  Aramaic.     In  the  words  "TTJ 
Idia  aiiT&v  SiaXe'/cro; "  Irenseus  is  probably  referring  to  the  Aramaic  dialect, 
as  Eusebius  by  the  expression  "  irarpiw  yXurry." 

2  We  may  suppose  this  gospel  to  have  the  first  written  record  of  the 
teaching  that  the   apostles  agreed  to  give  in  preaching  salvation.     A 
tax  collector  would  certainly  be  able  to  write  well,  and  so  he  was  em- 
ployed by  Saint  Peter  and  the  other  apostles  to  reduce  it  to  writing. 
The  synoptic  gospels  are  an  expansion  of  this  teaching  adapted  to  suit 
the  various  requirements  of  Jews,  Romans  and  Greeks.    Cf.  infra,  p.  390. 

8  Saint  Jerome  (Catalogus  Script.  Eccl.,  c.  3),  Matthasus,  qui  et 
Levi,  ex  publicano  apostolus  primus  in  Judcea,  propter  eos,  qui  ex  cir- 
cumcisione  crediderant,  evangelium  Christi  hebraicis  literis  verbisque 
composuit:  quod  quis  posted  in  grcecum  transtulerit,  non  satis  certum 
est. 


THE    BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT      373 

be  suggested  as  possible  translators.  But  whoever  translated 
it,  it  is  certain  that  the  Greek  text  of  the  first  gospel  has 
always  been  recognized  in  the  Church  as  a  faithful  rendering 
of  Saint  Matthew's  record,  whilst  the  probably  shorter  Hebrew 
original  ceased  to  be  regarded  as  canonical,  for  the  reason  that 
it  had  suffered  alterations  at  the  hands  of  heretical  Jewish 
Christians.  As  to  the  date  of  the  translation,  we  know  that 
it  was  made  in  the  time  of  the  apostles,  because  the  apostolic 
fathers  quote  the  Greek  text,  and  Papias  alludes  to  a  trans- 
lation, saying  that  originally  each  one  interpreted  the  Hebrew 
text  for  himself  as  best  he  could.1 


9.   PLACE  AND  DATE  OF  COMPOSITION 

From  what  has  been  said,  we  learn  that  Saint  Matthew's 
Gospel  was  written  in  the  Holy  Land,  perhaps  in  Capharnaum, 
where  he  had  been  employed  as  a  publican.  With  regard  to 
the  date,  we  know  that,  according  to  all  ancient  writers,  Saint 
Matthew  was  the  first  of  the  Evangelists  to  compose  his  work.2 
He  cannot  have  done  so,  however,  until  several  years  had 
elapsed  after  our  Lord's  Ascension,  for  in  xxvii.  8  he  says: 
"  That  field  was  called  Haceldama,  that  is,  the  field  of  blood, 
even  to  this  day."  And  again  in  xxviii.  15  (the  report  that 
the  disciples  had  stolen  our  Lord's  body)  "was  spread  abroad 
among  the  Jews  even  unto  this  day."  At  the  same  time  he 
must  have  written  before  70  A.D.,  for  the  Jewish  State  is  every- 
where described  as  still  existing.  To  arrive  at  a  more  pre- 
cise date,  we  may  refer  to  Eusebius,  who  says  (see  supra,  p.  371) 
that  Saint  Matthew  wrote  before  going  into  foreign  lands  to 
preach  to  the  Gentiles.  If  he  taught  in  Palestine  from  eight  to 
fifteen  years,3  he  may  have  composed  his  gospel  soon  after  the 
year  40.  Eusebius  (Chron.  a.  41)  gives  the  year  41  as  the  date, 
and  so  do  other  Greek  authors. 

1  Belser  believes  that  the  translation  was  made  about  the  year  70. 

3  Orig.  ap.  Euseb.,  Hist.  EccL,  V,  10;  Eusebius  himself,  Hier.  Catal. 
Scr.  EccL,  c.  3. 

8  Ancient  authorities  differ  as  much  as  this  with  regard  to  the  dura- 
tion of  his  work  in  Palestine. 


374    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

This  does  not  agree  with  the  statement  made  by  Irenaeus  (Adv.  Hcer., 
Ill,  1,  see  p.  367),  who  says  that  Saint  Matthew  wrote  his  gospel  whilst 
Saint  Peter  and  Saint  Paul  were  preaching  at  Rome.  If  this  were  cor- 
rect, the  date  of  composition  would  be  after  60  A.  D.,  as  Saint  Paul  did 
not  go  to  Rome  earlier.1 

It  seems  likely  that  when  Irenaeus  wrote  these  words,  he  did  not  in- 
tend to  fix  a  date,  but  simply  to  state  that  the  first  gospel  originated 
in  the  parent  community  in  Palestine,  and  not  like  the  second  and  third 
gospels,  in  Rome.2 


The  Gospel  According  to  Saint  Marie 
(16  chapters) 

10.    CONTENTS  AND  AUTHOR 

The  keynote  is  struck  at  the  beginning  of  the  book  (i.  1-15), 
—  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  proclaimed  at  His  baptism, 
founds  the  Messianic  kingdom.  (1)  i.  16-viii.  30,  Through 
His  work  in  Galilee  Christ  proves  Himself  to  be  the  Messias 
and  Son  of  God.  (2)  viii.  31-xiii.  37,  Instructions  .given  to 
the  apostles,  men  chosen  from  among  the  people,  to  introduce 
them  to  their  special  duties.  (3)  xiv.-xvi.,  Passion,  Death  and 
Eesurrection  of  Christ.  (Comely  gives  a  similar  division  of  the 
book.) 

More  detailed  examination,  i.  John  the  Baptist  appears  as  the  fore- 
runner of  the  Messias,  foretold  by  the  prophets;  the  Messias  Himself, 
Jesus  of  Nazareth,  at  once  comes  to  the  Jordan  for  baptism.  It  is  fol- 
lowed by  His  fasting  and  temptation,  and  then  His  Messianic  activity 
begins  with  the  call  of  some  disciples.  Healing  of  one  possessed  by  a 
devil,  of  Peter's  mother-in-law,  and  of  many  sick  persons,  including  a 
leper,  ii.  Cure  of  a  paralytic,  call  of  Levi,  the  disciples  pluck  ears  of 
corn.  iii.  The  man  with  the  withered  hand.  Pharisees  and  Herodians 
oppose  Jesus.  Choice  of  the  apostles.  His  enemies  declare  Him  to  be 
possessed.  His  mother  and  brethren,  iv.  Parables  of  the  seed,  the  sower 
and  the  grain  of  mustard  seed.  Calming  of  a  storm  at  sea.  v.  Cure  of 

1  A.   Schafer  and  Schanz  accept  this  date  on  the   authority  of  the 
passage   in   Irenaeus,   and  believe   that   the   Jewish   Christians   were   in 
danger,  as  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  shows.     No  suggestion  of  it  can 
be  found  in  the  gospel,  however,  though  the  epistle  is  plain  enough  on 
the  subject. 

2  Kaulen  suggests  that  the  name  of  Saint  Paul,  the  Apostle  of  the 
Gentiles,  crept  into  the  text  of  Irenseus  through  a  copyist's  error,  and 
that  he  really  mentioned  only  the  foundation  of  the  Church  at  Rome  by 
Saint  Peter  about  the  year  42.     Cf.  note  on  page  379,  infra. 


THE    BOOKS    OF    THE    NEW   TESTAMENT      375 

a  demoniac  on  the  other  side  of  the  lake.  Jairus*  daughter  and  the 
woman  with  the  issue  of  blood,  vi.  Unsuccessful  preaching  in  Nazareth. 
Mission  of  the  Twelve.  Herod's  alarm.  Miraculous  feeding  of  the  people. 
Walking  on  the  sea.  vii.  Eating  with  unwashed  hands.  Dispute  with 
the  Pharisees.  The  Chanaanite  woman.  Cure  of  a  deaf  mute.  viii. 
Feeding  of  four  thousand  persons.  Cure  of  a  blind  man.  Saint  Peter's 
confession.  Christ  foretells  His  death,  ix.  Transfiguration.  Cure  of  a 
boy.  Strife  for  precedence  among  the  disciples,  x.  Instruction  regard- 
ing marriage.  Blessing  of  children.  The  rich  young  man.  Another 
prophecy  of  death.  Request  made  by  two  apostles.  Cure  of  a  blind  man 
in  Jericho,  xi.  Entry  into  Jerusalem.  Buyers  and  sellers  in  the  Temple, 
xii.,  xiii.  Conflicts  with  the  ruling  parties.  Allusions  to  the  rejection 
of  the  Jews,  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  end  of  the  world, 
xiv.  The  Paschal  Supper.  Agony  on  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Seizure  by 
the  Jews.  Denial  by  Peter,  xv.  Scourging.  Crucifixion.  Death  and 
burial,  xvi.  Resurrection.  Ascension  into  Heaven. 

Who  was  the  author  of  this  book?  According  to  tradition 
it  was  Mark;  but  who  was  he?  He  is  not  to  be  found  in  the 
lists  of  the  apostles,  but  if  his  work  is  to  possess  the  apostolic 
authority,  he  must  have  been  very  closely  connected  with  them. 
Among  the  assistants  of  the  first  preachers  of  the  faith,  we 
often1  hear  of  a  man  named  Mark  or  John  Mark,  belonging 
to  a  family  of  Levites  in  Jerusalem.  Mark  is  a  Eoman  praeno- 
men  that  he  assumed,  and  gradually,  as  he  came  much  in  con- 
tact with  Latins,  it  took  the  place  of  his  national  name  John, 
although  the  latter  was  not  quite  forgotten.  His  mother's 
name  was  Mary  (Acts  xii.  12),  and  his  uncle  was  Joseph,  the 
Levite  (Col.  iv.  10),  who,  on  account  of  his  wonderful  elo- 
quence in  preaching  the  faith,  received  the  name  of  Barnabas, 
i.  e.  son  of  consolation  or  prophecy ;  bar  nebua  =  divinely  in- 
spired speaker.  Barnabas  introduced  his  nephew  to  the  work 
of  the  apostles,  and  about  the  year  46,  in  the  company  of  his 
uncle  and  Saint  Paul,  Mark  made  a  missionary  journey  from 
Antioch  to  Cyprus  and  thence  to  Asia  Minor.  At  Perge  in 
Pamphylia,  however,  he  left  them,  and  returned  to  Jerusalem, 
at  which  Saint  Paul  was  very  much  hurt.  For  several  years 
nothing  more  is  recorded  of  him  in  the  Acts,  and  we  know 
nothing  of  his  movements  until  in  50  we  hear  of  him  at  An- 
tioch, again  with  Paul  and  Barnabas.  Another  missionary 

1  Acts  xii.  12,  25,  xiii,  5,  13,  xv.  37,  39;    Col.  iv.  10;    II  Tim.  iv.  11; 

Philemon  24. 


376    HANDBOOK  TOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

journey  had  to  be  undertaken,  as  they  were  to  attend  the 
council  of  the  apostles,  and  Barnabas  wished  to  take  Mark 
with  him;  Paul  would  not  agree  to  this  proposal,  and  they 
separated  in  consequence.  Paul,  taking  Silas  as  his  com- 
panion, set  out  for  Asia  Minor,  whilst  Barnabas  and  Mark 
revisited  Cyprus.  Here  we  again  lose  sight  of  Mark.  In 
Col.  iv.  1  and  Philemon  24,  both  of  which  epistles  were  writ- 
ten during  Saint  Paul's  first  imprisonment  in  Rome,  about 
the  year  63,  his  presence  in  Rome  is  mentioned,  and  he  is 
said  to  have  the  intention  of  visiting  the  east.  In  II  Tim.  iv. 
11,  Timothy  is  commissioned  to  bring  him  with  him  to  Rome, 
where  Saint  Paul  then  was. 

The  two  great  gaps  in  Mark's  history  (42-50  and  50-63) 
may  be  filled  up  most  suitably  in  the  following  way:  1.  In 
I  Peter  v.  13  Saint  Peter  calls  Mark  his  son.  This  must 
undoubtedly  mean  that  he  had  converted  him  to  Christianity 
and  baptized  him.  The  Fathers  describe  Mark  as  Saint  Peter's 
interpreter.  The  question  has  been  raised  whether  this  desig- 
nation denotes  that  verbal  or  written  assistance  was  given  to 
Saint  Peter  by  Mark.  It  is  a  common  word  and  more  often 
refers  to  oral  than  written  explanation;  hence  we  must  not 
limit  it  here  to  the  latter  meaning,  as  some  persons  do.  Saint 
Peter  did  not  need  an  interpreter  in  Palestine  or  the  sur- 
rounding countries,  where  Greek  was  spoken,  but  he  might 
have  done  so  where  Latin  prevailed,  i.  e.  in  Italy.  About  the 
year  42  Saint  Peter  fled  from  Jerusalem  during  the  perse- 
cution under  Herod  Agrippa  (Acts  xii.  17),  and  according  to 
tradition  he  went  to  Rome;  so  we  may  suppose  that  Mark, 
after  leaving  Paul  and  Barnabas,  went  to  Rome  either  with 
or  to  Saint  Peter  in  order  to  help  him. 

2.  According  to  the  Fathers,1  Mark  was  the  founder  of  the 
church  and  bishopric  at  Alexandria.  He  may  have  gone  on 
thither  from  Cyprus  about  the  year  54  and  have  remained 
there  until  62,  when  he  appointed  Anianus  to  succeed  him,2 
and  went  to  rejoin  the  apostles  (Col.  ii.  10).  The  history  of 

1  Hieronymus  (De  Viris  III.,  8),  Epiphanius  (Hcer.,  cli.  6),  Eusebius 
(Hist.Eccl.,  II,  16). 

*  Hier. :    usque  ad  octavum  Neronis  annum. 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  377 

the  end  of  his  life  is  unknown.     According  to  tradition,  he 
suffered  martyrdom  at  Alexandria  under  Trajan. 


11.   AUTHENTICITY 

Ecclesiastical  tradition  ascribes  the  second  gospel  to  this 
follower  of  the  apostles,  and  it  is  supported  by  testimony  and 
quotations  from  the  earliest  times.  Justin  Martyr  (c.  Try  ph., 
106)  quotes  the  name  "Boanerges"  from  Mark  iii.  17. 
Irenaeus  (Adv.  Hcer.,  Ill,  x.  6)  gives  the  beginning  and  end  of 
this  gospel.1  There  is  also  a  good  deal  of  external  evidence, 
going  back  to  the  apostolic  age. 

Papias  (Euseb.,  Hist.  EccL,  III,  39)  refers  to  still  earlier 
testimony,  that,  namely,  of  John  the  Presbyter  in  Ephesus, 
and  says :  "  Mark,  who  was  interpreter  to  Peter,  wrote  down 
very  accurately  what  he  stated  regarding  the  words  and  deeds 
of  Christ.  But  he  did  not  write  them  in  chronological  order 
(ov  pevroi,  rafei)  because  he  had  neither  heard  the  Lord  nor 
followed  Him.  .  .  .  He  paid  particular  attention  to  one  point, 
viz.  to  omit  nothing  of  what  he  had  heard,  nor  to  add  any 
falsehood  to  them."  2 

The  testimony  of  Irenaeus  is  given  on  p.  367. 

Clement  of  Alexandria  (150-217)  also  refers  to  earlier  wit- 
nesses ("the  record  of  the  elders  from  the  beginning")  and 
Bays:  "When  Peter  was  preaching  in  Eome  his  hearers  went 
to  Mark  with  the  request  that  he  would  write  down  what  was 
said,  for  he  had  long  followed  Peter,  and  remembered  his 
words.  After  writing  the  gospel,  he  handed  it  to  those  who 

1  Marcus  interpres  et  sectator  Petri  initium  evangelicce  conscriptionis 
fecit  sio:  Initium  Evangelii  Jesu  Christi,  Filii  Dei,  quemadmodum  scrip- 
turn  est.  .  .  .  In  fine  autem  Evangelii  ait  Marcus:    et  quidem  Dominus 
Jesus,  postquam  locutus  est,  receptus  est  in  ccelos  et  sedet  ad  dexteram 
Dei. 

2  Kal  TOVTO  6  rrpefffiijTepos  £Xeye  •  M<£/>KOS  fjikv  gpfievevTys  H.£rpov  yev6/&€vos  oaa. 

/cpijSwj  fypa\j/€V,  ov  /JL^VTOI  Ta£et,  r&  virb  TOV  X/SICTTOU  ^  Ae%0&Ta  •$ 
a  '  otire  y&p  iJKOvffe  TOV  wplov,  otfre  TrapyKoXotdrjo-ev  ai)r£  .  .  .  &<6s 
o  irpbvoiav  TOV  p.t)$£v  &v  fjKovcre  irapaXi-Treiv  $)  ^/cvcracrdal  n  £v  CLVTOIS.  (^/WT;- 
fji&vevffev  may  refer  to  Mark  =  "  what  he  remembered,"  or  to  Peter  = 
"  what  he  stated.'*  The  remark  at  the  end  seems  to  require  the  latter 
interpretation. ) 


378    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

had  made  the  request,  and  Peter,  knowing  of  it,  neither  hin- 
dered nor  encouraged  him"  (Euseb.,  Hist.  Eccl.,  VI,  14). 

Numerous  other  witnesses  might  be  mentioned,  but  it  will 
be  enough  to  refer  to  Saint  Jerome,  who  sums  up  all  our 
traditional  knowledge  of  this  gospel  in  the  words :  "  Mark, 
the  disciple  and  interpreter  of  Peter,  at  the  request  of  the 
brethren  in  Eome,  wrote  a  short  gospel  in  conformity  with 
what  he  had  heard  Peter  say"  (De  Viris  Illustr.,  c.  viii.  9). 

Against  the  authenticity  of  this  gospel,  it  is  maintained  that  the 
earliest  and  most  important  testimony,  that,  namely,  of  Papias,  is  un- 
trustworthy, for,  apart  from  his  own  character  (see  supra,  p.  369),  he 
must  have  been  thinking  of  some  quite  different  book,  and  not  of  the  second 
canonical  gospel,  as  he  says  that  Mark  wrote  not  in  order,  whereas  there 
is  certainly  a  chronological  order  in  our  gospel,  for  it  begins  with  John 
the  Baptist  and  ends  with  the  history  of  our  Lord's  Passion. 

It  is  quite  obvious,  however,  that  Papias  only  meant  that  Mark  had 
not  intended  or  been  able  to  give  a  complete  account  of  the  life  of  Christ, 
for  he  had  not  been  an  eyewitness  of  it.  He  merely  wrote  down  from 
memory  the  chief  events  in  that  life,  as  Peter  had  spoken  of  them. 
John  the  Presbyter  in  Ephesus,  who  most  likely  ought  to  be  identified 
with  Saint  John  the  Apostle,  and  who  certainly  was  well  acquainted 
with  the  history  of  Christ,  detected  many  omissions  in  the  work.  Our 
Lord's  words  were  not  fully  reported,  and  in  the  story  of  His  life  events 
are  left  out  to  which  Peter  had  not  alluded  in  his  discourses.  The  in- 
completeness of  this  gospel  was  one  reason  why  Saint  John  in  his  old 
age  determined  to  write  a  gospel  himself  to  supplement  the  others. 


12.   PLACE  OF  COMPOSITION  AND  SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION 

The  quotations  already  made  prove  incontestably  that  Saint 
Mark  wrote  his  gospel  in  Eome  at  the  request  of  the  faithful, 
who  wished  to  possess  in  writing  what  Saint  Peter  had 
preached.  Confirmation  of  these  facts  may  be  derived  from 
internal  evidence.  (1)  Saint  Mark  is  fond  of  explaining  He- 
brew words  by  giving  the  Greek  equivalents,  e.  g.  v.  41,  xv.  22, 
34,  42.  In  the  same  way  he  adds  remarks  concerning  Jewish 
customs ;  e.  g.  v.  41,  vii.  3,  xiv.  12,  xv.  22,  34,  42.  These 
things  suggest  that  he  is  writing  for  people  who  are  not  Jews 
and  who  live  far  from  Palestine.  (2)  The  occurrence  of  many 
Latin  words  in  a  Greek  form,  such  as  irpaiT^piov,  KVJVO-OS, 
cr7re/couXaTa)/o,  /cevrvpicov  (Matthew  and  Luke  reade/caroWa/3%09), 


THE    BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW    TESTAMENT      379 


(=  quadrans),  etc.,  points  to  Latin  being  the  usual 
language  of  the  readers.  (3)  Some  passages  refer  directly  to 
Borne,  especially  xv.  21;  cf.  Eomans  xvi.  13.  If  it  be  asked 
why  Mark,  writing  for  the  Romans,  did  not  use  the  Latin 
language,1  we  may  reply  that  he  was  obliged  to  use  the  lan- 
guage of  his  master;  St.  Peter  preached  in  Greek,  and  could 
not  have  approved  of  the  written  gospel  unless  he  had  under- 
stood it  thoroughly  himself.  "  Peter's  interpreter  "  would  prob- 
ably take  care  that  a  translation  was  supplied. 

That  Saint  Peter  took  some  share  in  the  work  is  also  ap- 
parent from  the  contents.  (1)  The  events  are  related  as  by 
an  eyewitness  ;  cf.  e.  g.  i.  29  with  Matthew,  viii.  14  and  Luke 
iv.  38.  (2)  There  are  more  references  to  Saint  Peter  and  his 
family  in  the  second  gospel  than  in  the  others.  (3)  Though 
other  events  are  recorded  very  briefly  by  Saint  Mark,  he  gives 
the  most  detailed  account  of  Saint  Peter's  denial,  but  he  passes 
over  Saint  Peter's  special  commission.  (4)  In  Acts  i.  21, 
before  the  election  of  Matthias,  Saint  Peter  says  that  they 
must  choose  a  man  who  had  been  an  eyewitness  of  our  Lord's 
life,  from  the  time  of  His  baptism  to  that  of  His  Ascension. 
These  are  the  events  with  which  the  second  gospel  begins  and 
ends. 

13.   DATE  OP  COMPOSITION 

This  gospel  must  have  been  written  some  time  after  our 
Lord's  Ascension,  as  in  the  last  verse  (xvi.  20)  we  read:  "They 
going  forth  preached  everywhere."  The  apostles  had  betaken 
themselves  to  the  Gentiles,  thus  fulfilling  the  command  to  go 
and  "teach  all  nations"  (Matt,  xxviii.  19).  It  is  generally 
believed  that  Saint  Mark  did  not  write  earlier  than  67  or  even 
70  A.  D.2  This  theory  is  based  upon  a  passage  in  Irenasus,  who, 
after  speaking  of  Saint  Matthew,  adds  :  3  "  After  the  departure 
of  Peter  and  Paul,  Mark,  the  disciple  and  interpreter  of  Peter, 
who  had  written  down  what  had  been  preached  by  Peter,  trans- 

1  Eplirem  the  Syrian  says  that  the  gospel  was  composed  in  Latin. 

2  A.  Schafer  thinks  that  the  gospel  was  written  in  66  and  published 
in  67. 

3  Adv.  Hcer.,  Ill,  1  ;    Euseb.,  Hist.  EccL,  V,  10.     See  p.  367. 


380    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

mitted  it  to  us."  The  two  apostles  suffered  martyrdom  in 
Rome  in  the  year  67.  The  gospel  cannot  well  have  been 
written  later  than  70,  because  the  evangelist  records  Christ's 
prophecy  regarding  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  without  any 
comment  (Mark  xiii.  2). 

However,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  date  of  composition  was 
much  earlier.  In  the  Canon  this  gospel  generally  stood  second, 
so  that  in  the  ancient  Church  it  must  have  been  considered 
older  than  that  of  Saint  Luke.  Now  we  know  that  Saint  Luke 
wrote  between  61  and  63.  Further,  from  the  quotations  given 
supra,  on  p.  377  (authenticity  from  Clement  of  Alexandria  and 
Saint  Jerome),  we  must  infer  that  the  gospel  existed  during  the 
lifetime  of  Saint  Peter,  who  gave  his  sanction  to  it.  We  may 
even  suppose  that  the  faithful  in  Rome  desired  to  have  his 
discourses  recorded  in  writing,  on  the  occasion  of  his  leaving 
them  at  the  end  of  his  first  sojourn  in  that  city.  The  sub- 
scriptions in  the  manuscripts  generally  mention  the  tenth  year 
after  our  Lord's  Ascension  as  the  date  of  the  composition  of 
this  gospel.1  If  these  indications  be  accepted,  we  may  believe 
it  to  have  been  written  between  42  and  50.  The  words  of 
Irenaeus  may  mean  that  after  the  apostles'  death  Mark  pub- 
lished the  gospel  outside  as  well  as  inside  Rome.  It  is,  how- 
ever, more  probable  that  the  word  efoSo?  denotes  not  the  death 
of  the  two  apostles,  but  their  departure  from  Jerusalem.2 

1  See  Reithmayr,  p.  386.    Kaulen  (EinL,  III,  50)  suggests  42-44  as  the 
date. 

2  I£o5os  means  "  departure,"  hardly  ever  "  death,"  as  will  be  seen  in 
referring  to  a  lexicon.    The  only  exception  seems  to  be  II  Peter  i.  15.    If 
this  be  borne  in  mind,  what  Irenaeus  means  is:  "Whilst  all  the  apostles 
were  still  in  Palestine,  Matthew  wrote  the  first  gospel  in  the  Hebrew 
language,    because   he    had    long   been   working   amongst   the    Hebrews. 
Peter  and  Paul  displayed  their  greatest  energy  outside  Palestine,  espe- 
cially in  Rome.     When  they  had  left  Palestine,  their  written  gospels 
were  composed,  namely  Peter's   through  the   instrumentality   of   Mark, 
and  Paul's  through  that  of  Luke  in  Rome."     Knabenbauer   (Comm.  in 
Luc.,  p.  9)  thinks  that  2£o5os  does  not  mean  the  death  or  martyrdom  of 
the  two  apostles.     Comely    (Introd.,  Ill,  76)    is  of  the  same  opinion. 
Kaulen  (EinL,  III,  51)  proposes  to  read  K/c5o<ru>  instead  of  %£o8dv,  but  in 
this  context  it  would  be  difficult  to  assign  a  suitable  meaning  to  it. 


THE    BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT      381 


14.   KELATION  TO  MATTHEW  AND  LUKE 

Saint  Mark's  Gospel  is  the  shortest  of  all.  It  resembles 
Saint  Luke's  in  many  respects,  but  still  more  Saint  Matthew's; 
in  fact  the  first  two  gospels  contain  several  passages  that  are 
almost  word  for  word  the  same.  This  uniformity  cannot  be 
accidental,  and  it  is  generally  assumed  that  one  of  the  evange- 
lists used  the  work  of  the  other.  It  is  more  probable  that 
Saint  Mark  used  Saint  Matthew's  than  the  reverse.  For,  as 
we  have  seen,  Saint  Matthew  left  Palestine  soon  after  40  A.  D., 
when  it  is  certain  that  Saint  Mark's  Gospel  did  not  yet  exist. 
On  the  other  hand  Saint  Mark,  being  a  native  of  Jerusalem, 
must  have  very  early  become  acquainted  with  Saint  Matthew's 
Gospel,  written  for  use  in  Palestine,  and  he  may  very  probably 
have  taken  a  copy  of  it  with  him  to  Rome.  Even  if  the  gospel 
of  Saint  Matthew  at  that  time  existed  only  in  Hebrew,  it  may 
have  been  used  by  Saint  Mark,  when  he  wrote  down  Saint 
Peter's  discourses ;  and  whoever  translated  Saint  Matthew  must 
have  referred  to  Saint  Mark,  that  was  written  originally  in 
Greek.  In  fact  there  seems  reason  for  supposing  that  Saint  Mark 
himself  translated  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  into  Greek  (supra, 
p.  372).  In  this  case  the  resemblance  between  the  two  gospels 
is  quite  explicable.  Saint  Luke  may  have  used  both  gospels 
when  writing  his  own,  and  this  would  account  for  the  likeness 
between  Saint  Mark  and  Saint  Luke. 

Against  this  theory  that  one  evangelist  used  the  writings  of 
another  is  the  weighty  argument  that  the  Fathers  never  suggest 
anything  of  the  kind.  The  three  synoptic  gospels  reproduce 
probably  the  first  catechesis,  i.  e.  the  outline  which  the  apostles 
agreed  to  use  in  preaching,  the  primitive  oral  gospel  to  which 
(according  to  Gal.  ii.  2)  Saint  Paul  also  adhered.  We  may 
suppose  that  Mark,  or  rather  his  master  Saint  Peter,  took  from 
Saint  Matthew,  and  so  from  this  primitive  gospel,  as  much  as 
was  necessary  for  use  in  preaching  salvation  in  Eome.  Saint 
Luke,  according  to  his  statement  in  i.  2,  added  a  good  deal 
from  other  sources  to  supplement  what  Saint  Paul  taught. 
This  is  a  more  satisfactory  account  of  the  relation  borne  by 


382    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 

the  three  gospels  to  one  another  than  is  supplied  by  the 
hypothesis  mentioned  above  (cf.  supra,  p.  372,  note,  and  infra, 
p.  390). 

15.   CONTROVERSY  REGARDING  THE  END  OF  THIS  GOSPEL 

The  last  twelve  verses,  in  which  our  Lord's  appearances  after 
His  Eesurrection  and  His  Ascension  are  recorded  (xvi.  9-20), 
are  missing  in  the  very  ancient  Syriac  Lewis  Codex,  and  in  the 
important  Greek  manuscripts  B  and  tf .  Several  of  the  Fathers 
say  that  the  end  of  the  book  is  absent  in  many  manuscripts, 
and  in  some  of  the  more  recent  manuscripts  before  verse  9 
stand  the  words :  ea-rlv  Se  /cal  ravra  fapdfjLeva  fiera  TO  e<f>oj3ovvTO 
yap  •  avaa-ras  Se  KT\.  There  is,  however,  a  good  deal  of  evidence 
in  favor  of  its  being  genuine.  Except  those  mentioned  above, 
all  the  older  Greek  manuscripts  contain  this  conclusion,  and 
so  do  most  of  the  old  translations  (Itala  and  Peshitto,  also  the 
Coptic  version) .  Quotations  from  these  verses  occur  in  Irenaeus, 
who  knows  the  nineteenth  verse  as  Saint  Mark's,  and  perhaps 
in  Justinus  and  Hippolytus.  There  is  also  some  internal  evi- 
dence, for  Saint  Mark  could  not  have  ended  his  gospel  with  the 
words  e<f)o/3ovvTo  yap.  We  are  not  justified  in  rejecting  these 
verses.  It  is  probable  that  this  section  was  omitted,  first  from  the 
portions  read  in  the  churches,  and  then  from  the  manuscripts, 
because  of  the  exegetical  difficulty  presented  by  the  apparent  dis- 
crepancy between  Mark  xvi.  9,  etc.,  and  Matthew  xxviii.  1,  etc.1 

1  Westcott  and  Hort  have  examined  the  matter  very  carefully,  and 
have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  last  verses  did  not  originally  form 
part  of  the  gospel,  but  were  a  later  addition.  They  are,  however,  very 
old  and  embody  an  extremely  ancient  apostolic  tradition.  These  critics 
acknowledge  that  Irenaeus  quotes  Mark  xvi.  19  as  being  Saint  Mark's 
words,  and  they  recognize  the  testimony  of  Justinus,  though  they  ques- 
tion that  of  Hippolytus. 

In  an  article  in  the  Bibl.  Ztschr.,  1905,  pp.  269-272,  Mader  ascribes 
this  passage  to  Aristion,  mentioned  by  Papias  (apud  Euseb.,  Hist.  EccL, 
III,  39)  and  possibly  one  of  our  Lord's  disciples.  In  doing  so,  Mader 
attaches  importance  to  an  Armenian  translation  of  the  gospels,  of  the 
year  989,  in  which  Mark  xvi.  9-20  bears  the  heading  "by  Ariston  the 
Presbyter."  However,  Papias  does  not  call  Ariston  a  "  Presbyter,"  nor  v 
is  Ariston  the  same  name  as  Aristion. 

Reithmayr  and  Aberle  refer  to  the  persecution  under  Diocletian,  when 


THE   BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT     383 

The  Gospel  According  to  Saint  Luke 
(24  chapters) 

16.    SUBJECT,  CONTENTS  AND  AUTHOR 

Subject.  The  Messias  has  appeared,  namely  Jesus,  the  Son 
of  God,  and  has  established  an  everlasting  kingdom  for  the 
salvation  of  all  nations,  such  as  his  forefather  Jacob  announced, 
and  David  in  a  slight  degree  possessed  (i.  32). 

Contents.  1.  (Chapters  i.-iv.)  History  of  our  Lord's  child- 
hood and  His  preparation  for  His  Messianic  work.  2.  (iv.-ix.) 
Teaching  and  miracles  in  Galilee.  3.  (ix.-xix.)  Continuation 
of  the  above  and  instruction  of  the  apostles.  4.  (xx.-xxiv.) 
Sufferings  and  exaltation  of  the  Messias. 

Chapters  i.,  ii.  Early  history  of  Christ,  which  the  third  gospel  gives 
most  fully.  (Birth  of  Our  Lord's  precursor,  John  the  Baptist;  Birth 
of  Christ  in  Bethlehem;  Presentation  in  the  Temple;  Jesus  when  twelve 
years  old  at  the  Pasch.)  iii.  Baptism  of  Christ,  iv.  Temptation.  Our 
Lord  begins  His  ministry  in  Galilee,  v.,  vi.  The  first  apostles.  Instruc- 
tions and  miracles,  vii.  The  centurion  at  Capharnaum,  *the  young  man 
at  Nairn,1  *Christ  is  anointed  by  a  sinful  woman,  viii.  Further  ministry. 
Jairus'  daughter,  ix.  Feeding  of  five  thousand.  Peter's  confession. 
Prophecy  of  the  Passion.  Transfiguration,  x.  *The  Good  Samaritan. 
*Martha  and  Mary.  xi.  Denunciation  of  the  Pharisees,  xii.  Warning 
against  anxiety  about  temporal  goods.  Treasures  in  heaven.  The  lord 
of  the  household  and  his  servants,  xiii.  Leaven,  grain  of  mustard  seed, 
the  narrow  gate.  xiv.  Other  parables,  xv.  *The  lost  sheep,  the  lost 
drachma,  the  Prodigal  Son.  xvi.  *The  unjust  steward,  *Dives  and  Laz- 
arus, xvii.  Instruction  on  scandal,  on  pardoning  offenses,  on  the  power 
of  faith,  xviii.  *The  Pharisee  and  the  Publican.  Blessing  of  children. 


the  Christians  were  forced  to  get  rid  of  their  sacred  books.  After  the 
persecution  ceased,  new  books  had  to  be  procured,  and  Alexandrian  book- 
sellers were  foremost  in  supplying  them.  In  Alexandria  it  was  the 
custom  to  fast  before  Easter  only  until  midnight,  because  from  Matt, 
xxviii.  1-7  it  was  inferred  that  the  Resurrection  took  place  at  midnight, 
but  in  Rome  the  fast  continued  until  the  morning,  because  Mark  xvi.  9 
speaks  of  "  early."  Hence  the  final  verses  of  Saint  Mark's  Gospel  were 
omitted  in  the  Alexandrian  Bibles.  The  Lewis  Codex,  which  also  ends 
with  the  words  "  they  were  afraid  "  may  have  been  based  likewise  upon 
an  older  Alexandrian  manuscript.  Cf.  also  Innsbr.  Ztschr.,  1895,  i.  187. 
For  us  the  testimony  of  the  Church  secures  to  these  verses  a  place  in  the 
Canon.  C.  Trid.,  S.  4,  supra,  p.  254. 

1  Sections  marked  with  an  asterisk  are  peculiar  to  the  third  gospel. 


384    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

The  rich  young  man.  Prophecy  of  the  Passion.  The  blind  man  at 
Jericho,  xix.  *Zacheus.  Entry  into  Jerusalem.  Purification  of  the 
Temple,  xx.  Discourse  against  the  Pharisees,  xxi.  The  widow's  offer- 
ing; the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  end  of  the  world,  xxii.-xxiv. 
Account  of  Our  Lord's  Passion  and  Death,  Resurrection  and  Ascension. 

Author.  The  Church  has  at  all  times  ascribed  this  gospel 
and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  to  Lucas,  a  disciple  and  companion 
of  Saint  Paul,  and  frequently  mentioned  in  his  epistles.  We 
can  gather  some  information  regarding  his  life  from  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles.  Lukas  or  Lucas 1  was  born  at  Antioch  in 
Syria  (Euseb.,  Hist  Eccl.,  Ill,  4).  He  was  undoubtedly  of 
Gentile  origin,  as  Saint  Paul  (Col.  iv.  14)  carefully  distin- 
guishes him  from  others  who  were  circumcised.  By  profession 
he  was  a  physican.2  He  must  have  become  a  Christian  early, 
for  in  the  Acts,  when  he  begins  to  speak  of  himself  (xvi.  10), 
he  does  not  make  any  remarks  by  way  of  introduction,  as  he 
does  in  the  case  of  Timothy  (xvi.  1),  but  comes  forward  as 
already  well  known  to  his  readers.  He  accompanied  Saint 
Paul  on  his  second  missionary  journey  from  Asia  Minor  to 
Macedonia,  remaining  in  the  latter  country,  while  Saint  Paul 
went  on  southwards  to  Achaia.  He  seems  to  have  stayed  a 
long  time  in  Macedonia,  for  we  do  not  hear  of  his  being  with 
Saint  Paul  again  until  the  latter  was  leaving  Macedonia  on 
his  third  missionary  journey  and  going  to  the  East,  and  then 
Saint  Luke  joined  him  at  Philippi  (Acts  xx.  5,  6).  They  did 
not  again  part  company.  Luke  was  with  Saint  Paul  during 
his  two  years'  imprisonment  at  Caesarea,  traveled  with  him 
thence  to  Rome  and  remained  faithful  to  him  during  both  his 
first  and  second  imprisonment  there  (II  Tim.  iv.  11).  He  died 
at  Patarae  in  Achaia  between  the  ages  of  seventy-four  and 
eighty-four.3 

1  The  name  is  probably  an  abbreviated  form  of  Lucanus  or  Lukianos. 

2  Greg.  Naz.,  Sedulius.     Hug  draws  attention  to  some  technical  ex- 
pressions  occurring   in   Saint   Luke,  especially  irvperbs  fi^yas    ( iv.   38 )  ; 
dxXi/s    KaJ    <rK6Tos    (Acts   xiii.    11, —  <fcx\ta  =  a   mist   before    the    eyes). 
Harnack  too  refers  to  these  expressions  as  evidence  of  the  authenticity 
of  the  gospel. 

8  Hieronymus  (De  Script.  Eccl.)  :  vixit  octoginta  et  quaiuor  annos, 
uxorem  non  habens;  sepultus  est  Constantmopoli.  The  Church  ven- 
erates him  as  a  martyr. 


THE   BOOKS    OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT     385 

17.   AUTHENTICITY 

That  this  gospel  existed  in  the  first  century  and  was  recog- 
nized as  apostolic,  we  learn  from  Clement  of  Rome,  who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  see  of  Saint  Peter  in  the  year  90.  In  his  letters 
to  the  Corinthians  (i.  46  and  ii.  8)  there  twice  occurs  the  pas- 
sage: "The  Lord  says  in  the  gospel,  'He  that  is  faithful  in 
that  which  is  least^  is  faithful  also  in  that  which  is  greater'" 
(Luke  xvi.  10). 1  Polycarp,  a  disciple  of  the  apostles,  quotes 
(Phil,  ii.)  the  words:  "Be  ye  therefore  merciful,  as  your  Father 
also  is  merciful"  (Luke  vi.  36).  Justin  Martyr,  who  was 
almost  a  contemporary  (c.  Tryph.,  103,  105),  speaks  of  our 
Lord's  bloody  sweat  (Luke  xxii.  44)  and  of  His  last  words: 
"  Jesus  cried  with  a  loud  voice,  '  Father,  into  thy  hands  I  com- 
mend my  spirit'"  (Luke  xxiii.  46). 

In  the  Didache  there  are  several  quotations  from  Luke  vi.  28- 
32  on  love  of  one's  neighbor  and  one's  enemies.  The  heretic 
Basilides,  who  lived  under  Hadrian,  knew2  the  angel's  words: 
"The  Holy  Ghost  shall  come  upon  thee"  (Luke  i.  35). 

What  evidence  have  we  that  Saint  Luke  was  the  author? 

The  writer  was  a  Greek,  not  a  native  of  Palestine.  This  is 
quite  certain  from  the  comparatively  pure  Greek  of  the  gospel 
and  of  the  Acts,  which  is  surpassed  by  no  book  in  the  New 
Testament,  except  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  Saint  Luke 
was  a  native  of  Antioch.  He  does  not  actually  name  himself 
anywhere  as  the  author  of  the  two  books  ascribed  to  him,  but 
we  have  abundant  justification  for  believing  that  he  wrote  them. 

In  the  Acts  the  author  often  speaks  of  himself  and  Saint 
Paul  in  the  first  person  plural:  "We  journeyed,"  etc.  There- 
fore he  was  a  companion  of  Saint  Paul.  His  name  is  given 
by  other  witnesses. 

1.  Irenasus,  who  through  his  master  Polycarp,  Saint  John's 
disciple,  had  been  well  instructed  in  the  apostolic  tradition,  says : 
"Luke,  the  companion  of  Paul,  recorded  in  writing  the  gospel 

1  The  first  of  these  letters  is  undoubtedly  genuine  ;  it  was  written 
about  the  time  of  Domitian.    The  second  is  spurious. 

2  Philosophumena,  VII,  26, —  generally  supposed  to  be  the  work  of 
Saint  Hippolytus  of  Rome   (beginning  of  third  century). 


386    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 

preached  by  him."  *     This  testimony  shows  us  what  was  the 
traditional  belief  in  the  churches  of  Asia  and  Gaul. 

2.  The  Muratorian  Fragment  (see  p.  205),  written  in  Rome 
during  the  second  century,  contains  the  words :  Tertium  evangelii 
librum  secundum  Lucam.  Lucas  iste  medicus,"  etc. 

3.  From  Africa  we  have  the  evidence  of  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria (Strom.,  I,  21)  and  of  Origen  (in  Matt,  i.),  as  well  as  of 
Tertullian    (born  about  160   in  Carthage),  who  defended  the 
third  gospel,  on  the  grounds  of  tradition,  against  the  heretic 
Marcion.     He  constantly  speaks  of  Saint  Luke  as  the  author. 
"We  can  see  from  his  defense  that  at  that  time  no  one,  not 
even  Marcion's  own  followers,  questioned  the  authorship  of  the 
book;    all  that  the  heretics   desired  was  to   cast   out  certain 
passages  that  did  not  agree  with  their  doctrines.     It  would  be 
easy  to  multiply  witnesses.    There  is  no  trace  of  suspicion  ever 
having  been  cast  on  the  authorship  of  the  book  in  ancient  times. 


18.   AUTHORITIES 

Saint  Luke  was  not  himself  a  follower  of  Christ  but  his 
work  has  nevertheless  been  admitted  to  the  Canon  like  the 
writings  of  the  apostles.  This  is  due  to  the  connection  be- 
tween Saint  Luke  and  Saint  Paul,  who  is  called  by  Tertullian 
(Adv.  Marc.9  IV,  2)  the  magister  and  illuminator  of  his  dis- 
ciple. Irenagus  (1.  c.)  states  that  Luke,  being  Paul's  companion, 
wrote  down  the  gospel  preached  by  him.  The  Fathers  there- 
fore sometimes  refer  to  the  third  gospel  as  that  of  Paul,  in  the 
same  way  as  they  speak  of  the  second  as  that  of  Peter.  Euse- 
bius  (Hist.  Eccl.,  Ill,  4)  and  Saint  Jerome  (De  Vir.  III.,  7) 
allude  to  the  belief  that  Saint  Paul  is  always  referring  to 
Saint  Luke's  Gospel  whenever  he  speaks  of  "my  gospel."  The 
similarity  in  language  between  the  third  gospel  and  the  Acts 
on  the  one  hand  and  Saint  Paul's  epistles  on  the  other,  is  un- 
deniable. Already  in  the  first  chapter  of  Saint  Luke  there  are 
at  least  ten  words  peculiar  to  him  and  Saint  Paul.  Still  more 
striking  is  their  agreement  on  subject  matter,  such  as  the. 

1  Adv.  Hcer.,  Ill,  i.  1-xiv.  1   (dp.  Euseb.,  Hist.  Bod,  V,  10). 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT   387 

words  of  institution  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  (cf.  I  Cor.  xi.  24 
and  Luke  xxii.  19),  and  the  successive  appearances  of  Christ 
(cf.  I  Cor.  xv.  and  Luke  xxiv.  34). 

Saint  Luke  derived  much  information  from  Saint  Paul,  but, 
as  he  tells  us  in  the  introduction  to  his  book,  he  also  used 
other  authorities,  and  he  mentions  those  "who  from  the  begin- 
ning were  eyewitnesses  and  ministers  of  the  word,"  i.  e.  our 
Lord's  own  disciples.  We  must  think  primarily  of  those  who 
had  also  to  do  with  Saint  Paul,  —  Barnabas,  formerly  a  fol- 
lower of  Christ,1  Saint  Peter,  who  must  have  made  his  ac- 
quaintance in  Antioch;  perhaps  Saint  John;  certainly  Saint 
James  the  Less,  bishop  of  Jerusalem  (Acts  xxi.  18,  etc.).  The 
last  named,  who  was  closely  related  to  our  Lord,  would  be  in 
a  position  to  give  Saint  Luke  the  exact  details  concerning  the 
childhood  of  Christ  that  are  recorded  in  his  gospel.  Many 
think  also  that  he  knew  Mary,  our  Lord's  Mother.  In  fact 
Saint  Luke  says  emphatically  that  Mary  kept  in  her  heart  all 
the  words  and  incidents  connected  with  the  childhood  of  Christ. 
As,  however,  Saint  Luke  says  (i.  2)  that  he  had  recourse  only 
to  "  eyewitnesses  and  ministers  of  the  word,"  it  seems  likely  that 
Saint  James,  having  been  instructed  by  Mary,  was  the  source 
of  his  knowledge  of  these  events. 


19.   EEADEES.    DATE.    PLACE  OF  COMPOSITION" 

Saint  Luke  dedicates  his  gospel  (i.  3)  and  the  Acts  (i.  1), 
which  is  a  continuation  of  it,  to  a  certain  Theophilus,  to  whom 
he  gives  the  title  /cpdrio-Tos.  As  is  stated  in  the  preface,  Theo- 
philus, after  being  orally  instructed  in  the  principles  of  Chris- 
tianity, is  to  be  still  further  established  in  them  by  this  book, 
and  is  to  recognize  how  trustworthy  the  doctrines  are  that  have 
been  imparted  to  him.  For  this  end  Luke  has  carefully  in- 
quired what  he  could  ascertain  about  Jesus  Christ. 

We  know  nothing  of  Theophilus,  and  ancient  writers  could 
only  suggest  that  he  may  have  been  a  Gentile  Christian,  greatly 
respected  and  holding  some  high  office,  for  this  may  be  inferred 

1  Clem.  Alex.,  Strom.,  II,  20. 


HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OP  THE  BIBLE 

from  the  use  of  the  word  /cpdrurTos.1  The  book  is  certainly 
dedicated  to  him  only  as  a  mark  of  respect,  and  is  intended 
for  a  wide  circle  of  readers,  as  it  aims  at  supplementing  the 
already  existing  gospels  (i.  1,  etc.).  Its  readers  were  primarily 
those  Christians  to  whom  Saint  Paul  had  preached,  viz.  both 
Jews  and  Gentiles  in  Achaia,  Macedonia  and  Asia  Minor.  No 
gospel  had  yet  been  written  for  converts  in  this  part  of  the 
world.  Hence  Saint  Jerome  says  (Ep.  20  ad  Damasum) :  "  Luke, 
who  of  all  the  evangelists  best  understood  the  Greek  language, 
being  a  physician,  wrote  the  gospel  for  the  Greeks."  As  the 
author  (ii.  30,  etc.)  emphasizes  the  universality  of  salvation 
through  the  Messias,  as  Saint  Paul  was  always  accustomed  to 
do,  it  appears  that  this  gospel  was  not  intended  exclusively  for 
the  Greek-speaking  nations,  but  for  all  Christians. 

We  may  say  with  certainty  that  the  date  of  composition  is 
between  50  and  63.  The  book  cannot  have  been  written  before 
50,  as  it  was  only  about  this  time  that  Saint  Luke  can  have 
come  into  contact  with  Saint  Paul.  Neither  the  third  gospel 
nor  Acts  can  have  been  written  after  63,  as  at  the  close  of 
the  latter  book  we  read  of  Saint  Paul's  arrival  in  Borne  as  a 
prisoner,  but  nothing  is  said  of  his  release,  which,  according 
to  tradition,  took  place  in  63.  The  author  would  not  have 
passed  over  so  important  an  event  if  he  had  known  of  it.  We 
probably  ought  not  to  go  back  far  beyond  63  in  fixing  the 
date.  The  years  of  the  Apostolic  journeys  afforded  but  little 
leisure  for  the  compilation  of  such  a  work,  but  the  time  of 
Saint  Paul's  imprisonment  may  well  have  been  employed  in 
this  way.  Possibly  the  work  was  arranged  in  Cassarea  and 
actually  written  in  Rome,  between  the  years  61  and  63. 

According  to  Holtzmann  (Einl.  i.  d.  N.  T.) ,  386,  405,  the  third  gospel 
and  the  Acts  were  both  written  after  the  year  70 :  "  for  the  author  in 
his  preface  reveals  himself  as  a  man  of  a  later  generation,  working  on 
the  basis  of  tradition,  as  many  before  him  have  written  similar 
accounts."  But  it  is  precisely  in  the  preface  ( i.  1 )  that  Saint  Luke  de- 


1  Some  suppose  that  the  name  Theophilus  is  altogether  fictitious,  like 
Saint  Francis  of  Sales'  Philothea.  But  the  designation  Kparurros,  i.  e. 
reverend,  mighty,  is  not  in  keeping  with  a  merely  fictitious  personage; 
it  is  given  chiefly  to  high  officials  (Acts  xxiii.  26;  xxiv.  3;  xxvi.  25). 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  389 

scribes  himself  as  our  Lord's  contemporary   (iv  ^fJilv)   and  refers  to  hia 
authorities  as  eyewitnesses  ( avroirrai )  .* 

From  Acts  xxviii.  14,  15  it  appears  that  Theophilus  lived  in 
Rome ;  we  read :  "  The  brethren  .  .  .  came  to  meet  us  as  far 
as  Appii  Forum  and  the  Three  Taverns."  These  words  seem 
intended  for  readers  in  Rome,  for  these  small  places  would 
be  unknown  to  others.2 


20.   THE  AUTHOR'S  REASON  FOR  WRITING 

In  the  preface  (i.  1)  Saint  Luke  intimates  that  the  already 
existing  gospels  seem  to  him  not  fully  to  satisfy  the  desires 
of  the  new  converts  to  Christianity,  and  therefore  he  has  de- 
termined to  supplement  them.  There  were  already  several 
accounts  extant  of  our  Lord's  life  and  works;  we  possess  only 
two  of  them,  —  the  gospels  according  to  Saint  Matthew  and 
Saint  Mark;  the  rest  have  perished,  not  having  apostolic 
sanction  and  authority.  There  are  indeed  many  omissions  in 
the  first  two  gospels;  Saint  Matthew  tells  us  very  little,  and 
Saint  Mark  nothing  at  all,  about  the  childhood  of  Christ.  Both 
bring  in  Saint  John  the  Baptist  abruptly,  having  told  their 
readers  nothing  of  his  origin  and  early  history.  In  his  in- 
tercourse with  Christ's  disciples  Saint  Luke  learnt  further  de- 
tails, and  felt  himself  qualified  to  compose  a  fuller  account 
of  our  Saviour  and  the  history  of  the  redemption.  Theophilus 
and  others  may  have  requested  him  to  do  so.  It  was  plain 

1  Other  commentators  (Hausrath,  Keim,  Clemen,  Jtilicher  and  Kren- 
kel)  agree  with  Holtzmann,  and  think  that  the  books  were  not  written 
until  after  100  A.  D.,  because  they  profess  to  detect  a  reference  to  Jo- 
sephus  Flavius,  who  wrote  between  80  and  104.  Belser  has  critically 
examined  the  alleged  traces  of  reference  to  Josephus,  but  the  result  at 
which  he  arrives  is  that  Josephus  was  acquainted  with  both  Saint  Luke's 
works,  and  intentionally  omitted  or  distorted  various  things  in  them. 

2  Theophilus  was  certainly  not  a  native  of  Palestine,  for  in  mention- 
ing Nazareth  (i.  26)  and  Capharnaum  (iv.  31)  Saint  Luke  thinks  it 
necessary  to  add  that  they  are  in  Galilee,  and  he  calls  Arimathea  (xxiii. 
51)  a  town  in  Judea.  He  describes  the  position  of  the  Mount  of  Olives 
and  gives  its  distance  from  Jerusalem  (Acts  i.  12)  and  also  states  the 
distance  of  Emmaus  (Luke  xxiv.  13).  Theophilus  seems  not  to  have 
been  a  Greek,  as  in  that  case  the  Athenians  would  hardly  be  mentioned 
as  they  are  in  Acts  xvii.  12.  The  nearer  the  actors  in  the  story  come  to 
Rome,  the  fewer  are  these  descriptive  touches. 


390    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE   BIBLE 

that  Saint  Paul  and  his  companions  were  able  to  give  fuller 
information  on  many  points,  than  could  be  found  in  the  gospel 
of  Saint  Mark,  already  known  in  Eome. 


21.   THE  SYNOPTIC  WRITERS 

The  first  three  gospels  resemble  one  another  in  a  remarkable  degree, 
whilst  Saint  John's  stands  quite  apart.  For  this  reason  Matthew,  Mark 
and  Luke  are  called  the  Synoptic  Evangelists.1  The  likeness  between 
the  three  gospels  appears  (1)  in  the  choice  of  the  same  subjects,  (2)  in 
similarity  of  language. 

(1)  With  regard  to  their  subject  matter,  the  three  evangelists  con- 
fine themselves  almost  exclusively  to  our  Lord's  preaching  in  Galilee  and 
to  the  history  of  His  Passion.     Their  accounts  and  statements  are  par- 
allel;   what  occurs  in  one  gospel  occurs  also  in  the  other  two.     Saint 
Luke's  order  often  differs  from  that  of  Saint  Matthew  and  Saint  Mark, 
because  he  is  more  accurate  in  his  chronology.    Saint  Mark  has  the  fewest 
peculiarities.    His  gospel  contains  only  twenty-seven  verses  that  do  not 
occur  in  either  of  the  others. 

(2)  With  regard  to  their  style,  it  often  happens  that  all  the  three 
synoptic  writers,  at  least  two  of  them,  report  an  event  or  a  discourse  in 
the  same  way,  so  that  their  accounts  agree  almost  word  for  word  for 
several  sentences  in  succession.    This  cannot  be  due  to  chance.     It  is  no 
less  striking,  however,  that  often  in  the  same  account  there  are  variations, 
additional  circumstances  being  mentioned,  or  other  motives  assigned  to 
the  utterances  reported. 

Besides  what  has  been  said  on  page  381,  infra,  regarding  the  relation  in 
which  the  three  evangelists  stand  to  one  another,  we  may  notice  that  all 
difficulties  are  not  removed  by  the  hypothesis  that  they  used  one  another's 
writings.  If  Saint  Matthew  wrote  down  what  he  himself  had  taught, 
if  Saint  Mark  recorded  Saint  Peter's  doctrine  and  Saint  Luke  Saint 
Paul's,  —  we  should  expect  considerable  differences  in  the  mode  of  state- 
ment, as  the  three  apostles  differed  greatly  in  character,  position  and 
work.  The  similarity,  however,  is  so  great  that  it  must  have  a  deeper 
source  than  mere  reference  to  one  another's  writings  on  the  part  of  the 
apostles.  Apparently  they  agreed  amongst  themselves  how  they  would 
preach  the  gospel  in  conformity  to  the  commission  given  them  by  Christ. 
Just  as  He  associated  mostly  with  the  common  people,  so  did  the 
apostles  everywhere  address  them  first.  A  simple  account  of  our  Lord's 
teaching  and  works  in  Galilee  was  better  suited  for  purposes  of  in- 
struction than  were  His  disputes  with  the  Rabbis  in  Jerusalem,  re- 
corded later  by  Saint  John.  All  who  preached  the  faith,  and  conse- 
quently all  the  three  evangelists,  adhered  to  this  first  outline  of  apostolic 
doctrine,  which  was  regarded  almost  as  sacred  and  not  to  be  tampered 
with.  We  can  hardly  decide  whether  this  first  form  was  kept  in  writ- 
ing or  orally;  there  is  less  difficulty  in  believing  that  it  was  oral. 


1  The  name  probably  means  "  agreeing,"  but  it  is  not  well  chosen. 
Si>vo7TTi/c6s  means  otherwise  "  far-sighted,"  "  comprehensive." 


THE   BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT      391 

Saint  Paul  says  (Gal.  ii.  2)  that  about  the  year  51  he  communicated 
the  gospel,  which  he  preached  among  the  Gentiles,  to  the  other  apostles 
at  Jerusalem,  and  they  were  satisfied  with  it.  He  does  not  say  that  it- 
was  written  down.  If  the  three  evangelists  derived  their  information 
from  a  common  source,  the  similarity  in  their  accounts  is  explained, 
and  if  the  source  was  only  oral,  being  less  exact  than  if  it  had  been 
written,  this  would  explain  also  the  differences  in  their  forms  of 
statement. 

The  existence  of  an  oral  primitive  gospel,  i.  e.  a  form  agreed  upon  by 
the  apostles  for  preaching  salvation,  and  serving  as  the  foundation  of 
the  first  three  canonical  gospels,  is  assumed  by  Kaulen,  Comely,  Knaben- 
bauer,  Le  Camus,  Langen,  Aberle-Schanz  and  Al.  Schafer.  Belser,  on 
the  other  hand,  believes  that  there  was  a  written  primitive  gospel,  viz. 
the  Hebrew  original  of  Saint  Matthew. 


The  Gospel  According  to  Saint  John 
(21  chapters) 

22.   CONTENTS  OF  THE  FOURTH  GOSPEL 

The  synoptic  writers  lay  most  stress  upon  proving  the  God- 
Man,  Jesus  Christ,  to  be  the  Messias,  but  though  the  fourth 
gospel  is  also  concerned  with  this  topic,  it  is  intended  chiefly 
to  teach  the  divinity  of  Christ  (xx.  31). 

Introduction,  (i.  1-18)  From  all  eternity  the  Logos  has  existed  and 
has  been  active,  but  it  was  only  in  our  time  that  He  appeared  on  earth, 
clad  in  our  human  nature,  but  unhappily  He  found  but  few  among  His 
own  people  to  believe  in  Him,  although  He  made  those  who  received 
Him  children  of  God.  An  eyewitness  (i.  14)  intends  to  relate  how  He, 
being  both  God  and  Man,  lived  amongst  men,  and  taught  them. 

Part  I.  (L  19-xii.)  Jesus  of  Nazareth  revealed  Himself  in  His  public 
life  as  the  Messias  and  Son  of  God. 

1.  (i.   19— iv.)   His  dignity  was  recognized  by  John  the  Baptist  and 
many  who  believed  in  Him  in  Judea,   Samaria   and  Galilee.      (First 
miracle  at  Cana,  purification  of  the  Temple,  Nicodemus,  the  Samaritan 
woman,  the  ruler's  son.) 

2.  (v.-xi.)   In  spite  of  His  miracles  (healing  of  the  lame  man,  feeding 
of  the  five  thousand,  discourse  on  the  bread  from  heaven,  teaching  in  the 
Temple,  the  woman  taken  in  adultery,1  the  man  born  blind,  the  Good 


1  This  section,  vouched  for  by  Saint  Jerome,  is  omitted  in  the  manu- 
scripts B,  N,  A,  C,  and  in  the  Lewis  Codex.  There  can  be  hardly  any  doubt 
that  it  was  left  out  because,  for  reasons  of  discipline,  it  was  not  read 
in  the  churches.  The  object  that  the  Pharisees  had  in  view  on  this  occa- 
sion was  to  throw  discredit  on  our  Lord,  since  they  assumed  that  He 
would,  as  usual,  give  a  merciful  judgment,  in  which  case  they  would  be 
able  to  charge  Him  with  violating  the  law  of  Moses  (John  viii.  6). 


392    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

Shepherd,  the  raising  of  Lazarus)  He  was  opposed  by  the  sect  of  the 
Pharisees  and  they  determined  that  He  must  die. 

3.  (xii.)  In  consequence  of  His  solemn  entry  to  Jerusalem  as  Mes- 
sias,  the  Pharisees  arranged  to  put  a  violent  end  to  His  activity. 

Part  II.  (xiii.-xix.)  He  revealed  Himself  as  Messias  and  Son  of  God 
also  in  His  Passion  and  Death. 

1.  (xiii.-xvi.)  The  Last  Supper  and  the  last  discourse  to  the  dis- 
ciples, whom  He,  as  Son  of  God,  comforted  before  His  departure. 

2.  (xvii.)   Christ's  prayer  for  His  own  disciples. 

3.  (xviii.,  xix.)   His  Passion  and  Death. 

Part  III.  ( xx.,  xxi. )  The  Messias  and  Son  of  God  revealed  His  dignity 
finally  ( 1 )  in  His  glorious  resurrection,  ( 2 )  in  His  repeated  appearances, 
during  which  He  arranged  for  the  forgiveness  of  sins  and  bestowed  upon 
Saint  Peter  the  office  of  chief  pastor. 

This  evangelist  writes  with  inimitable  ardor,  with  the  deepest  inspira- 
tion. He  betrays  unspeakable  joy  that  he,  with  others,  was  chosen  to 
go  about  with  the  Son  of  God,  and  to  be  loved  by  Him  even  more  than 
others.  "  The  Word  was  made  flesh  and  dwelt  among  us,  and  we  saw 
his  glory,  the  glory  as  it  were  of  the  only-begotten  of  the  Father,"  etc. 


23.  SAINT  JOHN  THE  APOSTLE 

"We  have  a  fairly  detailed  knowledge  of  this  apostle's  life  from 
the  synoptic  gospels  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  John1  was 
the  son  of  Zebedee,  a  fisherman  living  near  the  Lake  of  Ge- 
nesareth,  and  his  wife  Salome.  He  had  a  brother,  who  as  an 
apostle  is  known  as  Saint  James  the  Great.  Their  parents  must 
have  lived  in  comfortable  circumstances  (Mark  i.  20;  Luke  viii. 
3;  Matt,  xxvii.  56).  At  first  John  followed  his  father's  calling, 
but  when  John  the  Baptist  appeared  he  became  his  disciple,  and 
was  sent  by  his  master  to  Jesus  (John  i.  35,  etc.) .  After  the  first 
meeting  near  the  Jordan  he  returned  to  Galilee  with  our  Saviour, 
and  resumed  his  occupation,  but  he  and  his  brother  were  soon 
called  by  our  Lord  to  be  His  constant  companions.  Saint  John 
was  our  Lord's  favorite  disciple,  and  with  Saint  Peter  and  Saint 
James  he  received  special  marks  of  honor  (Tabor,  the  Last 
Supper,  Mount  of  Olives,  Calvary).  The  Fathers  tell  us  that 
his  remarkable  innocence  was  the  reason  for  this  preference. 
After  Christ's  Ascension  he  was  one  of  the  most  energetic 
apostles  (cf.  Acts  iii.  and  viii.).  With  Peter  and  James  the 
Lees  he  was  regarded  as  a  "pillar  of  the  Church"  (GaL  ii.  9). 

1  Hebrew  Jochanan  =  the  Lord  is  gracious  ( fjnV  ) ., 


THE    BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT      393 

He  afterwards  left  Jerusalem,  and  we  hear  of  him  subsequently 
as  bishop  of  Ephesus  (Euseb.,  Hist.  Eccl.,  Ill,  20,  24),  but  he 
seems  to  have  gone  there  after  Paul  and  Timothy.1  Towards 
the  end  of  his  life  he  was  banished  to  the  island  of  Patmos  in 
the  ^Egsean  Sea,  as  several  of  the  Fathers  state.  Tertullian 
(De  prcescr.,  36),  Saint  Jerome  and  others  say  that  he  was  first 
taken  to  Home,  and  there  dipped  into  a  barrel  of  boiling  oil,  but 
was  taken  out  uninjured.  These  events  occurred  in  the  reign 
of  Domitian;  Nerva,  a  more  merciful  ruler,  allowed  Saint 
John  to  return  to  Ephesus,  and  he  died  a  natural  death  there 
in  extreme  old  age,  in  the  year  100. 


24.   AUTHENTICITY  OF  THE  FOURTH  GOSPEL 

According  to  the  tradition  of  the  Church,  Saint  John  is  the 
author  of  the  fourth  canonical  gospel,  but,  even  more  than  in 
the  case  of  the  synoptic  gospels,  negative  criticism  has  striven 
to  disprove  its  authenticity.  It  is  alleged  2  that  the  book  can- 
not have  been  written  before  about  170,  as  it  is  not  mentioned 
earlier,  contains  historical  and  geographical  inaccuracies,  pre- 

1  Papias  (apud  Euseb.,  Hist..  Eccl.,  Ill,  39)  speaks  of  a  presbyter 
named  John  at  Ephesus.  He  is  probably  identical  with  the  apostle,  who 
was  then  very  old,  for  the  writer  of  the  second  and  third  epistles  of 
Saint  John  describes  himself  simply  as  6  ?rpe<r/3i5Tepos.  See  also  A. 
Schafer,  259.  Most  Catholic  commentators  identify  them,  e.  g.  Comely, 
Knabenbauer,  Felten,  Poggel  and  Bludau,  and  so  do  many  Protestants, 
such  as  Zahn,  Olshausen,  Hengstenberg. 

8  So  Breitschneider  and  Strauss.  They  were  followed  by  Baur,  Zeller, 
Schwegler,  all  of  them  adherents  of  the  Tubingen  school,  and  many  more 
recent  critics,  e.  g.  J.  ReVille,  Le  quatridme  Svangile,  son  origine  et  sa 
valeur  historique.  Paris,  1901.  This  writer  denies  all  historical  value 
to  the  fourth  gospel,  and  believes  it  to  be  the  work  of  a  mind  penetrated 
with  Philo's  speculation  regarding  the  Logos.  He  thinks  that  John  can 
hardly  ever  have  worked  in  Asia  Minor,  and  that  the  gospel  is  not  in 
harmony  with  what  we  know  from  the  New  Testament  of  John,  son  of 
Zebedee,  etc.  In  ancient  times  this  gospel  was  rejected  only  by  the 
Alogi  =  "A\o7di,  those  who  would  not  accept  the  Logos.  The  name,  which 
originated  with  Epiphanius  (Hcer.,  51,  3),  also  means  "unreasonable." 
The  Alogi  lived  in  the  second  century,  and  members  of  the  sect  existed 
in  many  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  especially  in  Phrygia.  Their  denial,  how- 
ever, actually  serves  as  a  testimony  to  the  universal  belief  of  Christians 
at  that  time,  for  they  strove  to  show  that  the  gospel  could  not  be  the 
work  of  John  the  Apostle. 


394    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

sents  us  with  long  and  subtle  discourses  that  plainly  cannot 
have  been  uttered  by  Christ,  and  in  short  consists  of  a  Logos 
doctrine  that  was  not  developed  before  the  second  century. 
In  answer  to  these  statements  we  may  mention  as: 

(a)  Internal  Evidence.     (1)   The  author  generally  explains 
Hebrew  expressions  and  Jewish  customs,  e.  g.  x.  1-16,  x.  22,  23 ; 
he  was  therefore  a  Jew  by  birth,  writing  for  readers  not  liv- 
ing in  Palestine.     This  would  agree  with   Saint  John's  resi- 
dence in  Ephesus.     (2)  The  author,  from  motives  of  humility, 
does  not  give  his  name  anywhere,  but  describes  himself  as  an 
eyewitness    (i.   14,  i.  35,  etc.;    xix.   35,  xxi.  24)    and  as  our 
Lord's  beloved  disciple   (xiii.  23,  xix.  26,  xx.  2).     These  are 
undoubted  references  to  Saint  John.1 

(b)  External  Evidence.      (1)    Quotations  from  this  gospel 
or  from  the  First  Epistle  of   Saint  John,  which  has  always 
been  connected  with  it,  occur  in  Acts  x.  and  in  the  ^  works  of 
Ignatius,  Polycarp  and  Papias.     (2)  The  epistle  to  Diognetus, 
written,  according  to  chapter  xi.,  by  a  disciple  of  the  apostles, 
belonging  probably  to  the  first  half  of  the  second  century  as 
he  speaks  of  Christianity  as  a  new  religion,  contains  expres- 
sions  regarding  the  Logos   that  are  similar  to   those  in   the 
fourth  gospel.      (3)    In  the  same  way  Justin  Martyr    (circa 
140,  supra,  p.  361),  in  his  doctrine  of  the  Logos,  assumes  a 
knowledge  of  the  fourth  gospel,  and  says  that  he  bases  his 
teaching  concerning  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  upon  the 
"Memoirs  of  the  Apostles,  viz.  the  Gospels"  (Dial.  c.  Tryph., 
105).     In  another  place   (ApoL,  I,  61)   he  quotes  from  John 
iii.  5:  "Unless  a  man  be  born  again,"  etc.     (4)   The  gnostic 
Basilides,  writing  about  120,  refers  to  John  i.  9 :  "  the  true 
light  which  enlighteneth  every  man,"  etc.     (PhilosopJiumena, 


1  The  name  John  occurs  twenty  times  in  the  fourth  gospel,  but  each 
time  the  Baptist  is  meant;  the  apostle  John  and  his  brother  James  the 
Great  are  often  mentioned  in  the  synoptic  gospels,  but  in  this  gospel 
never  by  name.  The  writer,  however,  declares  himself  to  be  a  highly 
favored  apostle;  such  were  only  Peter  and  the  sons  of  Zebedee.  Peter 
cannot  have  been  the  author,  as  he  is  expressly  (xiii.  24,  xxi.  21)  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Beloved  Disciple,  and  it  cannot  have  been  James  the 
Great,  as  the  writer  was  (xxi.  23)  very  old,  whereas  James  was  the  first 
of  the  apostles  to  be  put  to  death,  42  A.  D.  (Acts  xii.  2) . 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  395 

VII,  22).  (5)  Theophilus,  bishop  of  Antioch  (about  170-180), 
quotes  (Ad  AutoL,  II,  22)  the  gospel  bearing  the  name  of 
John  as  a  sacred  book,  long  and  universally  recognized.  "We 
are  instructed  by  the  sacred  books  and  all  the  inspired  writers, 
of  whom  John  says,  'In  the  beginning  was  the  Word/"  etc. 
(6)  Irenaeus,  who  lived  almost  at  the  same  time,1  whose  mas- 
ter, Polycarp,  was  St.  John's  own  disciple,  gives  evidence  to 
the  same  effect,  and  says  that  Saint  John  wrote  his  gospel 
during  his  residence  in  Ephesus  (Adv.  Hcer.,  Ill,  i.  1 ;  II,  xxii. 
5;  III,  xi.  1). 

(c)  No  one  can  deny  that  towards  the  close  of  the  second 
century  the  fourth  gospel  was  universally  known  in  the  Church, 
and  ascribed  to  Saint  John.     This  would  be  impossible,  if  it 
had  been  a  recent  forgery,  for  the  various  Christian  communi- 
ties and  their  rulers  would  certainly  have  resisted  the  intro- 
duction of  a  work  not  contained  in  previous  texts,  and  par- 
ticularly if  it  had  not  stood  in  the  Latin  and  Syriac  versions. 

(d)  It  is  easy  by  means  of  correct  exegesis  to  remove  the 
alleged  historical  and  geographical  inaccuracies. 

In  xi.  49  and  xviii.  13  we  read  that  Caiphas  was  high  priest  in  that 
year;  now  Josephus  Flavius  says  (Antiq.,  XVIII,  ii.  2)  that  Caiphas  was 
high  priest  for  a  period  of  ten  years.  But  in  matters  of  chronology  Jo- 
sephus is  known  to  be  untrustworthy.  Moreover  the  gospel  does  not 
state  that  Caiphas  held  office  only  for  one  year,  but  that  he  was  high 
priest  in  that  ever-memorable  year. 

Sychar  (John  iv.  5)  is  not  a  mistake  for  Sichem,  but  there  was  really 
a  place  of  that  name  near  Sichem;  it  is  now  called  Askar.  There  may 
very  well  have  been  a  Bethania  beyond  the  Jordan  (John  i.  28 ),2  besides 
the  better  known  town  of  that  name  near  Jerusalem;  names  compounded 
with  Beth  were  very  common.  Saint  John  knew  the  Bethany  near  Jeru- 
salem quite  well,  for  he  says  it  was  fifteen  furlongs  distant  from  the 
capital  (xi.  18). 

(e)  With  regard  to  the  often  long  and  sublime  discourses 
of  our  Lord.,  it  is  probable  that  Saint  John  wrote  down  many 

1  The  value  of  this  irrefutable  witness  is  f  'iown  in  a  monograph  writ- 
ten by  Gutjahr   (Graz,  1903)   in  reply  to  Harnack,  Gorssen  and  others. 
See  also  Revue  biblique,  1898,  I,  59;    Corluy,  Comm.  in  ev.  s.  Joannis, 
p.  4. 

2  The  ru    ous  place  called  Betane    ( =  Betonim  in  the  tribe  of  Gad, 
Jos.  xiii.  26)  may  be  identified  with  this  Bethania  beyond  the  Jordan. 


396    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

of  His  sermons  and  instructions  at  once.  We  can  hardly  im- 
agine that  he  would  not  wish  to  communicate  to  his  parents, 
friends  and  relatives  many  of  the  Messias'  divine  lessons,  which 
he  had  heard  with  heartfelt  enthusiasm.  We  must  remember, 
too,  that  in  performing  his  task  as  an  apostle,  Saint  John  was 
obliged  frequently  to  repeat  Christ's  teaching  —  so  that  it  re- 
mained fresh  in  his  memory,  and  even  as  an  old  man  he  could 
still  reproduce  it  correctly. 

(/)  The  author  designates  our  Saviour  as  the  Logos.  About 
the  year  100  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  spoke  much  of  the  Word 
of  God;  and  the  doctrine  of  the  Logos  did  not  develop  as  late 
as  the  second  or  third  century,  but  goes  back  to  the  first.  As 
far  as  we  know,  our  Saviour  did  not  speak  of  Himself  as 
Logos,  but  soon  after  the  year  100  we  find  complete  systems 
of  a  false  Logos  doctrine  existing  among  the  gnostics.  The 

3 trine  must  have  originated  in  the  first  century,  $nd  Saint 
had  reason  enough  to  oppose  the  misuse  of  the  word  with 
true  doctrine  of  the  Logos.  He  found  the  name  in  use 
not  only  among  his  opponents,  but  also  in  the  Old  Testament, 
where  there  is  frequent  allusion  to  the  Word  of  God  as  to  a 
person  (e.g.  Ps.  xxxii.  6;  Prov.  viii.  ix.;  Wisdom  ix.  1,  xviii. 
15;  cf.  I  Cor.  viii.  6;  Phil.  ii.  6,  etc.;  Col.  i.  15;  Apoc. 
xix.  13). * 

Many  recent  non-Catholic  writers  acknowledge  now  that  the  fourth 
gospel  was  written  not  later  than  110  (see  supra,  p.  361).  Jiilicher 
thinks  it  was  not  written  by  Saint  John,  but  as  to  its  date  he  merely 
says  it  cannot  be  earlier  than  100.  Zahn,  on  the  contrary,  declares  him- 
self in  favor  of  the  old  eclesiastical  tradition.  Resch  thinks  it  was  writ- 
ten soon  after  70  A.  D.,  Wuttig  about  62,  H.  Gebhardt  soon  after  60,  and 
Rutgers,  a  Dutch  scholar,  assigns  it  even  to  the  year  34.  Kiippers  is  of 
opinion  that  John  wrote  soon  after  44,  Luke  between  53  and  57,  Matthew 
about  60  and  Mark  soon  after  64.2 


1  John  was  able  therefore  to  explain  thus  to  the  Gentiles  by  birth: 
"  What  the  Alexandrian  Greek  philosophers  imagined  about  the  Logos, 
we  Christians  understand  far  better;    it  is  the  divine  messenger,  long 
promised  and  now  become  flesh,  that  we  call  with  perfect  right  the  Logos, 
because  He  has  spoken  to  men  at  all  times  as  God,  and  now  also  as  Man." 

2  If  no  attention  were  paid  to  tradition  we  might  believe  the  fourth 
gospel  to  be  older  than  the  synoptics,  as  a  good  deal  of  internal  evidence 
would  seem  to  justify  this  view,  e.  g.  chapters  ix.  and  xi. 


THE   BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT     397 


25.   TIME  AND  PLACE  OF  COMPOSITION 

It  is  unanimously  agreed  by  early  Christian  writers  that 
Saint  John  was  the  last  of  the  evangelists  to  write  his  gospel, 
and  this  is  borne  out  by  internal  evidence.  (1)  In  xxi.  18 
there  is  a  reference  to  Saint  Peter's  crucifixion,  hence  the  year 
67  was  over.  (2)  In  speaking  of  places  in  or  near  Jerusalem, 
the  apostle  always  uses  the  past  tense,  %v  (xi.  18,  xviii.  1, 
xix.  41),  hence  Jerusalem  must  have  been  destroyed  before  the 
gospel  was  written.  (3)  At  the  end  of  the  book  (xxi.  23) 
there  is  an  allusion  to  the  belief  among  the  Christians  that 
Saint  John  was  not  to  die.  Such  an  idea  could  have  arisen 
only  after  most  or  all  of  the  other  apostles  were  dead,  and 
when  Saint  John  himself  was  very  old.  (4)  The  party  hostile 
to  Christ  is  always  designated  ol  'lov&uot;  at  the  time,  there- 
fore, when  the  book  was  written,  Gentile  Christians 
the  majority,  and  Jews  were  scarcely  known  in  the 
except  as  adversaries.  (5)  The  whole  arrangement  of  the 
book  points  to  the  existence  of  the  other  gospels  (see  below). 
(6)  The  author's  style  savors  of  Hebrew,  and  shows  that  he  was 
a  Jew  by  birth,  but  the  Greek  is  purer  than  that  of  the 
Apocalypse.  He  must  therefore  have  written  his  gospel  later 
than  the  Apocalypse,  having  in  the  interval  improved  his  knowl- 
edge of  Greek  through  his  intercourse  with  Greek-speaking 
Christians.  As  Saint  John  (according  to  Apoc.  i.  9,  etc.)  re- 
ceived and  wrote  the  Apocalypse  on  the  island  of  Patmos, 
during  the  reign  of  Domitian,  we  may  take  the  year  100  as 
the  approximate  date  of  his  writing  the  gospel.  We  know 
from  Irenaeus  that  it  was  composed  at  Ephesus.1 


26.   OBJECT  AND  MOTIVE 

We  may  take  it  for  certain  that  Saint  John  assumed  in  his 
readers  an  acquaintance  with  the  other  gospels  (i.  15,  32,  iii. 
24,  xviii.  33,  etc.).  He  mentions  very  briefly  what  the  synoptic 

1  Iren. :     ical   av-rds   l£ldci>jrc   TO   evayytXiov   ev   'E0&ry   -7-775  'A.ffla.5 
(see  supra,  p.  395,   (fe),    (6)). 


398    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

writers  have  already  recorded,  and  then  adds  some  fresh  in- 
formation to  their  accounts.  Hence  we  are  often  told  that 
his  object  was  to  supplement  the  other  gospels,  and  this  no 
doubt  was  part  of  what  he  intended  to  do;  but  he  tells  us 
himself  (xx.  30  and  31,  xxi.  25)  quite  plainly  what  his  main 
object  was.  "Many  other  signs  also  did  Jesus  in  the  sight 
of  his  disciples,  which  are  not  written  in  this  book."  If  any 
man  were  to  write  in  detail  all  that  the  Infinite  One  has  done, 
"the  world  itself  would  not  be  able  to  contain  the  books  that 
should  be  written."  Therefore  a  selection  has  been  made,  and 
only  "these  are  written,  that  you  may  believe  that  Jesus  is 
the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  and  that  believing  you  may  have 
life  in  His  name." 

John  felt  himself  impelled  to  give  this  testimony,  written 
with  great  enthusiasm,  to  the  divinity  of  Christ  and  to  be- 
queath it  to  the  Church,  as  already  some  were  beginning  to 
deny  His  divinity,  among  whom  Irenaeus  mentions  particularly 
Cerinthus,1  and  also  because  it  was  easy  to  foresee  that  others 
would  follow  their  example. 

The  immediate  impulse  prompting  Saint  John  to  write  was 
a  request  addressed  to  him  by  many  bishops  and  communities,2 
who  begged  him  to  supplement  the  corporal  gospels  with  a 
spiritual  gospel,  i.  e.  to  record  his  own  memories  of  our  Lord 
in  a  special  work,  in  which  His  divinity  should  be  more  con- 
spicuous than  in  the  first  three  gospels. 

The  historical  character  of  this  gospel  is  denied  by  many  commenta- 
tors. Some  assert  that  the  author  was  influenced  by  Philo,  and  was  an 
idealist,  not  a  genuine  historian.  However,  the  fact  that  he  supplements 
the  synoptic  writers  shows  that  he  paid  attention  to  history,  and  the 
discourse  that  he  records  (chapter  vi. )  on  the  Holy  Eucharist  is  a  very 
suitable  introduction  to  what  they  tell  us  concerning  its  institution.  He 
often  gives  details  of  time  and  circumstance  in  connection  with  events, 
as  only  an  eyewitness  could  do.  No  one  could  describe  the  incidents  of 
our  Lord's  Passion  so  accurately  as  Saint  John,  who  never  left  Him 
even  in  His  sufferings;  and  therefore  he  gives  minute  information  re- 
garding Annas,  Pilate  and  the  Crucifixion  (cf.  Knabenbauer  in  Stimmen 
aus  Maria-Laach,  1904,  361,  in  answer  to  Loisy  and  others.  Also  the 
replies  given  by  the  Papal  Biblical  Commission  of  May  29,  1907). 


1  Adv.  Hwr.,  I,  26;    III,  11. 

2  Frag.  Mur.;   Clem.  Alex.,  ap.  Eus.,  Hist.  EccL,  VI,  14;    Hier. 


THE   BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT     399 

"  God,  who  at  sundry  times  and  in  divers  manners  spoke  in  times 
past  to  the  fathers  by  the  prophets,  last  of  all  in  these  days  hath  spoken 
to  us  by  his  Son,  whom  he  hath  appointed  heir  of  all  things,  by  whom 
also  he  made  the  world."  Heb.  i.  1. 

The  gospels  tell  us  of  this  last  and  highest  revelation;  they  are  the 
written  reproductions  of  the  oral  teaching  given  by  the  apostles  in  ful- 
fillment of  their  commission  to  go  into  the  whole  world  and  preach  the 
gospel  to  every  creature  (Mark  xvi.  15).  These  four  books  are  the  crown 
of  all  the  inspired  writings,  and  if  we  may  still  further  discriminate 
among  these  divine  disclosures,  the  gospel  of  Saint  John  is  the  chief 
jewel  in  this  crown,  as  the  Muratorian  Fragment  suggests,  for  the  writer 
believes  the  fourth  gospel  to  be  the  outcome  of  a  particular  revelation. 

The  gospels  contain  the  teaching  that  conquered  Rome,  the  capital  of 
the  world,  Italy  and  Greece,  and  soon  the  whole  known  world.  They  are 
of  interest  to  the  antiquarian,  who  may  learn  from  them  how  religious 
subjects  were  discussed  in  the  times  of  the  first  emperors,  and  by  what 
means  paganism  was  overthrown;  they  are  of  interest  to  the  historian, 
more  important  than  all  the  excavations  at  Troy  or  in  Egypt,  Assyria 
and  Babylonia,  more  important  even  than  all  the  Greek  and  Latin 
classics;  for  Plato  and  Cicero  never  induced  the  inhabitants  of  a  single 
village  to  live  in  accordance  with  their  doctrines,  but  the  gospel  has 
transformed  mankind.  In  the  highest  degree  they  are  of  interest,  or 
rather  they  are  objects  of  veneration,  to  the  Christian.  The  gospel  is 
truly  a  "  power  of  God  "  (Rom.  i.  16),  subduing  everything  to  itself,  and 
penetrating  the  souls  of  men  like  a  two-edged  sword,1  for  it  is  the  word 
of  God  in  the  highest  sense.  This  is  why  we  stand  when  the  gospel  is 
read;  this  is  why  candles  and  incense  are  brought,  for  we  are  dealing 
with  a  most  high  and  divine  announcement. 

How  great  and  joyful  a  thing  it  is  that  the  Church  has  handed  down 
to  us  the  word  of  God,  God's  message  to  men  for  their  salvation  in  time 
and  in  eternity!  Can  there  be  any  more  noble  and  more  honorable  occu- 
pation than  to  read  and  study  Holy  Scripture  in  general,  and  particu- 
larly the  teaching  of  Christ,  as  imparted  to  us  in  the  gospels!  But  just 
as  even  in  Paradise  God's  words  were  misinterpreted,  so  can  it  be  with 
the  written  word  of  God,  and  therefore  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
to  follow  with  regard  to  it  the  rules  laid  down  by  the  Church,  for  Holy 
Scripture  is  her  property  (cf.  infra,  p.  458). 


B.   THE   ACTS   OF   THE   APOSTLES 

(28  chapters) 

27.   CONTENTS 

The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (7r/oa£et?  a7roo-ToXa>r,  actus  apostolo- 
rum)   in  its  first  part   (chapters  i.-vii.)    deals  with  the  early 

1  Heb.  iv.  12.     "The  word  of  God  is  living  and  effectual,  and  more 
piercing  than  any  two-edged  sword." 


400    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

history  of  the  Church  of  Christ  and  its  propagation  amongst 
the  Jews.  Most  of  the  incidents  recorded  took  place  at  Jeru- 
salem. The  second  part  (viii.-xii.)  describes  the  extension  of 
the  Church  from  the  Jews  to  the  Gentiles,  and  Antioch  be- 
comes the  chief  center  of  activity  in  the  Church.  In  both  these 
parts  Saint  Peter  is  the  chief  actor.  The  third  part,  which  is 
the  longest  (xiii.-xxviii.),  contains  the  early  history  of  the 
Church  amongst  the  Gentiles;  the  work  of  Saint  Paul  occupies 
most  of  this  part,  and  the  center  of  activity  is  Rome.  Hardly 
any  other  book  has  come  down  to  us  from  ancient  times  that 
gives  so  vivid  a  picture  of  the  state  of  the  Graeco-Roman  world 
in  the  time  of  the  apostles.1 

Part  I.  i.  Ascension  of  Christ.  Choice  of  Matthias,  ii.  Descent  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  at  Pentecost.  Peter's  discourse,  iii.  The  man  born  lame, 
iv.  Arrest  of  Peter  and  John.  Community  of  property  among  the  Chris- 
tians, v.  Ananias  and  Saphira.  Gamaliel,  vi.,  vii.  Stephen. 

Part  II.  viii.  Persecution.  Conversion  of  Samaria.  Philip  and  the 
eunuch,  ix.  Conversion  of  Saul.  Peter  at  Lydda  and  Joppe.  x.  Cor- 
nelius, xi.  The  church  at  Antioch.  xii.  Peter  in  prison  at  Jerusalem, 
his  miraculous  delivery,  Ms  departure. 

Part  HI.  xiii.,  xiv.  Journey  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Cyprus  and  Asia 
Minor,  xv.  Council  of  the  apostles.  Paul's  second  missionary  journey. 
xvi.  His  activity  in  Asia  Minor  and  Macedonia,  xvii.,  xviii.  Paul  in 
Athens  and  Corinth.  His  third  missionary  journey,  xix.  Paul  in  Ephe- 
sus.  xx.  His  journey  to  Macedonia  and  Achaia.  His  return.  He  takes 
leave  of  the  elders  from  Ephesus  at  Miletus.  xxi.-::xiii.  Journey  to 
Jerusalem.  He  is  taken  prisoner  and  sent  to  Caesarea.  xxiv.-xxvi.  Im- 
prisonment at  Csesarea.  Felix  and  Festus.  Agrippa.  xxvii.  Journey  to 
Rome.  Shipwreck  at  Malta,  xxviii.  Arrival  in  Rome. 

Data  for  the  chronology  of  this  book  are  supplied  by  II  Cor.  xi.  32, 
and  by  Josephus  Flavius  (Autiq.,  XVIII,  5),  vho  says  that  I -ing  Aretas, 
an  Arabian  prince,  made  war  up  m  his  son-in-law,  Herod  Antipas,  towards 
the  end  of  Hie  reign  of  'KVrius,  because  Herod  had  divorced  his  daugh- 
ter. Herod  appealed  to  Rome  for  assistance,  which  was  granted.  It  was 

1  Fr.  Blass  in  1895  edited  the  Acts,  with  a  short  commentary,  and  in 
1896  he  brought  out  a  text  edition  of  it,  according  to  Codex  D  (see 
p.  230 ) .  He  is  of  opinion  that  Saint  Luke  compiled  two  versions  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  a  fuller  one  for  the  Christians  in  Rome,  and  a 
shorter  <  le  especially  for  Theophilus.  The  former  is  preserved  in  Codex 
D,  the  latter  in  our  traditional  text.  In  Tie  main  Belser  agrees  with 
Blass,  but  other  commentators  oppose  this  theory,  e.  g.  Kaulen  and  Har- 
nack.  W.  Ernst  tried  to  show  that  the  Codices  B  and  K  are  themselves 
secondary,  but  still  stand  nearest  to  the  original  text  of  Saint  Luke  (also 
with  regard  to  the  gospel). 


THE    BOOKS    OF    THE    NEW   TESTAMENT     401 

during  this  war,  probably  in  the  year  37,  that  the  governor  appointed  by 
Aretas  was  in  command  at  Damascus,  and  tried  to  seize  Saint  Paul,  so 
that  he  was  obliged  to  escape  secretly.  Saint  Paul's  conversion  took 
place  three  years  before  this  event,  viz.  in  34,  and  the  Council  of  the 
Apostles  was  held  fourteen  years  after  it,  viz.  in  51  (Gal.  i.  18;  ii.  1). 
Saint  Paul's  first  missionary  journey  was  made  before  the  Council,  per- 
haps in  46-49;  the  second  immediately  after  the  Council,  probably  52- 
55,  and  the  third  lasted  from  56  to  59.  Then  the  apostle  was  kept  in 
prison  at  Caesarea  for  two  years  (59-61),  and  in  Rome  for  another  two 
years  (62  and  63).  The  book  ends  at  this  point. 

Harnack  gives  different  figures,  because  he  thinks  Saint  Paul  was 
converted  as  early  as  the  year  30. 

Weber  gives  the  date  of  his  conversion  as  32.  It  is  well  known  that 
there  is  some  uncertainty  about  the  chronology  of  our  Lord's  life.  Ac- 
cording to  the  chronology  of  Dionysius,  Christ  was  born  in  the  year  754 
after  the  building  of  Rome.  But  now  commentators  are  generally  agreed 
in  fixing  an  earlier  date;  748  seems  to  be  the  safest;  and  then  our  Lord's 
death  occurred  in  782.  (Cf.  Cornely,  Synopses  Script.  Sacr.,  pp.  337 
and  365.) 

28.   AUTHOB.    AUTHENTICITY 

The  author  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  does  not  mention 
himself  by  name,  but  gives  indications  by  means  of  which  he 
may  be  identified. 

1.  At  the  beginning  of  the  book  (i.  1)  he  says  that  he  has 
already  written  a  treatise  concerning  what  Jesus  said  and  did; 
in  other  words,  he  had  written  a  gospel.     We  have  therefore 
a  choice  of  four  men. 

2.  He   often  expressly   speaks   of   himself   as   Saint   Paul's 
assistant  and  companion.     Of  the  four  evangelists  this  descrip- 
tion applies  to  Saint  Luke  alone.     It  is  true  that  Saint  Mark 
came  in  contact  with  Saint  Paul,  but  the  author  of  the  Acts 
says  that  he  accompanied  him  first  on  his  second  missionary 
journey,  which  Saint  Mark  did  not  make  on  account  of  the 
differences  that  had  arisen  between  them. 

3.  The  style  of  the  book  and  the  dedication  to  Theophilus 
also  suggest  the  third  gospel.     The  book  of  Acts  is  therefore 
the  second  part  of  Saint  Luke's  historical  work.     He  himself 
(i.  1)  calls  his  gospel  the  "  first  book." 

The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  was  read  in  the  churches  less  fre- 
quently than  the  gospels,  hence  it  was  separated  from  the 
"first  book"  and  put  with  the  epistles.  This  explains  the 


402    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 

regret,  expressed  by  Saint  John  Chrysostom,  that  many  Chris- 
tians in  his  day  did  not  know  the  book  (Horn.,  I,  1,  in  Ada 
Apost.). 

Being  less  used  than  the  gospels,  allusions  to  and  quotations 
from  it  are  not  of  frequent  occurrence.,  but  it  is  quite  certain 
that  the  Apostolic  Fathers  were  well  acquainted  with  it.  Poly- 
carp  (Ep.  ad  Philad.,  c.  1)  quotes  Acts  ii.  24:  "whom  God 
hath  raised  up,  having  loosed  the  sorrows  of  hell."  Ignatius 
(Ad  Smyrn.,  c.  3)  quotes  Acts  x.  41.  In  the  Didache  (ed. 
Schlecht,  VI,  2)  the  word  fyybv  is  used  of  God's  law,  as  it  is 
in  Acts  xv.  10.  Other  references  to  Acts  occur  in  the  Didache 
(IX,  2  and  3,  X,  6.  The  book  is  mentioned  by  name  in  the 
Fragm.  Murat.,  by  Irenaaus  (Adv.  Hcer.,  Ill,  xiv.  1),  Clement 
of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  V,  12),  Origen  (c.  Gels.,  VI,  11),  and 
Tertullian  (De  Jejun.,  c.  10). 

Rationalistic  commentators  challenge  the  authenticity  of  the  work, 
chiefly  because  they  arbitrarily  assume  it  to  be  the  outcome  of  a  dis- 
pute between  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christians,  and  intended  to  reconcile 
the  Jews,  who  adhered  to  Saint  Peter,  and  the  Gentiles,  who  relied  upon 
Saint  Paul.  The  writer,  having  this  intention,  falsified  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  Church  by  representing  it  in  such  a  way  that  the  gulf  sepa- 
rating the  two  parties  should  seem  to  be  bridged  over,  and  unity  re- 
stored. This  could  not  have  been  done  by  a  disciple  and  contemporary 
of  Saint  Paul,  but  a  later  author  must  have  composed  the  book.  But 
if  such  had  been  the  writer's  intention,  he  would  not  have  allowed  the 
obstinacy  of  the  Jews  to  be  so  conspicuous  as  it  is  throughout  the 
work.  The  real  object  with  which  the  book  was  written  is  stated 
plainly  in  Acts  i.  8.  It  is  to  show  how  our  Lord's  words  were  ful- 
filled; "You  [apostles]  shall  receive  the  power  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
coming  upon  you,  and  you  shall  be  witnesses  unto  me  in  Jerusalem, 
and  in  all  Judea,  and  Samaria,  and  even  to  the  uttermost  part  of  the 
earth." 

29.  EEADERS 

Like  the  third  gospel,  this  book  also  is  dedicated  by  Saint 
Luke  to  Theophilus,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  must  have  been 
a  man  of  high  position  in  Home.  But  this  Christian  was  not 
intended  to  be  the  only  reader,  for  at  the  beginning  of  the 
gospel  Saint  Luke  shows  plainly  that  he  meant  to  supplement 
the  existing  gospels,  and  so  he  must  have  had  a  wide  circle 
of  readers  in  view.  We  may  believe  that  he  wrote  the  Acts, 


THE    BOOKS    OF    THE    NEW   TESTAMENT     403 

as  he  did  the  gospel,  primarily  for  the  communities  of  Greek- 
speaking  Christians,  amongst  whom  he  had  labored  with  Saint 
Paul,  and  then  for  the  whole  Church. 


30.   SOURCES  OP  INFORMATION 

At  least  a  third  of  the  incidents  related  in  the  book  were 
matters  of  personal  experience  to  Saint  Luke.  In  describing 
other  things  he  had  to  rely  upon  the  accounts  given  by  others. 
The  same  men  who  supplied  him  with  information  for  the 
gospel,  furnished  him  with  it  for  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
He  refers  to  them  as  eyewitnesses  and  ministers  of  the  Word, 
so  they  were  our  Lord's  apostles  and  disciples,  especially  Saint 
Peter  and  Saint  James  the  Less;  perhaps  Saint  John,  and 
certainly  Saint  Barnabas.  On  some  points  he  must  have  used 
written  documents,  particularly  for  Saint  Stephen's  discourse 
(chapter  vii.)  and  the  speeches  at  the  Apostolic  Council  (xv.). 
Of  course  he  derived  a  great  deal  of  information  from  Saint 
Paul.  Some  few  speeches,  such  as  Saint  Paul's  farewell  dis- 
course (xx.  18-35),  he  seems  to  have  written  down  when  they 
were  uttered. 

31.   TIME  AND  PLACE  OF  COMPOSITION 

The  Acts  must  have  been  written  whilst  Saint  Peter  was  still 
alive.  His  abode  is  not  specified,  as  to  do  so  might  involve 
him  in  danger.  Where  we  read  of  his  delivery  from  the  power 
of  Herod  Agrippa,  we  are  only  told  that  "he  went  into  an- 
other place"  (xii.  17).  The  date  of  the  book  is  therefore 
before  67,  and  the  conclusion  of  it  gives  us  another  indication 
of  time.  The  writer  leaves  his  readers  in  uncertainty  as  to  the 
result  of  Saint  Paul's  trial  in  Eome.  He  mentions  their  ar- 
rival there,  but  says  nothing  about  either  an  acquittal  or  a 
condemnation.  It  is  only  from  tradition  that  we  know  that 
Saint  Paul  regained  his  liberty  after  being  in  prison  for  two 
years  in  Eome.1  We  must  conclude,  therefore,  that  Saint  Paul 
was  still  in  prison  when  the  book  was  finished,  for  otherwise 

1  This  view  is  generally  accepted. 


404    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Saint  Luke,  who  reports  everything  with  accuracy  and  in  de- 
tail, would  not  have  omitted  to  inform  his  readers  of  his 
sentence.  We  have  therefore  reason  to  believe  that  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  was  written  in  Rome  between  the  years  61 
and  63,  whilst  Saint  Luke  was  encouraging  Saint  Paul  in  his 
captivity  (Col.  iv.  14).  This  was  the  opinion  formed  by  Saint 
Jerome  (De  Viris  Illustr.,  c.  7). 


SECOND  SECTION 

DIDACTIC  BOOKS   OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 
SAINT   PAUL'S   EPISTLES 

32.   SAINT  PAUL  THE  APOSTLE 

1.  Paul,  or,  as  he  was  called  before  his  missionary  journeys, 
Saul,1  was  by  birth  a  Jew  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  His 
birthplace  was  the  city  of  Tarsus  in  Cilicia.  His  parents  brought 
him  up  according  to  strictly  orthodox  principles  (Acts  xxiii. 
6),  and  it  was  probably  whilst  he  was  still  at  home  that  he 
learnt  the  business  of  weaving  tent-covers,  by  which  he  gen- 
erally had  to  support  himself  on  his  apostolic  journeys.  It 
was  a  matter  of  principle  among  the  Pharisees  that  every  man 
should  have  his  son  taught  a  trade.  His  parents  must  have 
occupied  a  good  position  and  have  been  well-to-do,  for  their 
son  from  his  birth  enjoyed  full  Eoman  citizenship  and  was 
sent  to  complete  his  education  at  Jerusalem,2  where  he  was 
attached  to  the  school  of  Gamaliel,  a  famous  teacher  of  the 
law,  and  acquired  rabbinical  learning  and  that  strict  conformity 
to  Jewish  customs  which  was  regarded  as  a  special  ornament 
to  a  zealous  Israelite.  He  must  have  received  some  instruction 

1  Saul:     Sha'ul.     This  Jewish  name  was  unfamiliar  to  Greeks  and 
Romans,  but  Paulus,  resembling  it  in  sound,  was  in  frequent  use.     Per- 
haps the  apostle  adopted  the  latter  name  as  a  token  of  respect  to  the 
Roman  proconsul  Sergius  Paulus   (Acts  xiii.  7),  and  perhaps  also  from 
motives  of  humility.     IlaOXos,  paulus  =  iratpos  =  insignificant,  little. 

2  From  Acts  xxiii.  16  it  appears  that  Saint  Paul  had  a  married  sister 
in  Jerusalem,  as  her  son  assisted  him  when  he  was  in  prison. 


THE   BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT     405 

in  the  literature  of  western  nations,  probably  before  he  left 
Tarsus,  for  he  shows  in  his  writings  that  he  was  familiar  with 
Greek  authors  (Acts  xvii.  28;  Titus  i.  12;  I  Cor.  xv.  33). 

2.  Being  an  ardent  enthusiast  for  the  Jewish  law,  young 
Saul  took  part  in  stoning  Saint  Stephen,  and  it  is  not  improb- 
able   that   he    wrote    down    Saint    Stephen's    discourse,    which 
Saint  Luke  gives  very  fully  in  Acts  vii.,  with  a  view  to  using 
it  in  further  persecutions  of  the  Christians.     Saint  Stephen's 
last  prayer  may  have  won  for  him  the  grace  of  conversion, 
although  for  a  time  his  hatred  of  the  followers  of  the  Crucified 
seemed  intensified  (Acts  viii.  3,  xxii.  4).     Not  contented  with 
persecuting  them  in  Jerusalem,  he  sought  and  obtained  from 
the  Synedrium  letters  authorizing  him  to  seize  all  the  disciples 
of  Christ  who  were  in  Damascus,  and  bring  them  as  prisoners 
to  Jerusalem.     Not  far  from  Damascus  he  had  a  vision  of  our 
Lord,  which   agitated  him  to  a  terrible  degree  and   changed 
him  from  an  enemy  to  a  most  zealous  champion  of  Christianity 
(Acts  ix.,  also  xxii.  6;   xxvi.  13,  etc.). 

3.  He  was  baptized  in  Damascus,   and  at   once  began  to 
proclaim  Christ  as  the  Messias  and  as  divine.    Then  for  a  time 
he  withdrew  to  Arabia  (Gal.  i.  17),1  probably  that  by  prayer 
and  penance  he  might  prepare  himself  for  a  wider  sphere  of 
action.     He  returned  to   Damascus   and  continued  his  work, 
promoting  Christianity  with  the  greatest  zeal,  so  that  the  Jews, 
in  their  indignation,  tried  to  seize  him,  and  he  had  to  flee 
at  the  risk  of  his  life   (Acts  ix.   23).     He  went  at  first  to 
Jerusalem  in   order  to  make   acquaintance  with   Saint   Peter. 
This  was  three  years  after  his  conversion,  probably  in  the  year 
37  (Gal.  i.  18).     Being  persecuted  here  also  by  the  Jews,  and 
having  received  special  signs  from  Christ  (Acts  xxii.  18),  he 
went  to  Tarsus,  his  native  city,  and  remained  there  some  years 
(Gal.  i.  21).     About  this  time  the  first  community  of  Gentile 
Christians  was  formed  in  Antioch,  Barnabas  being  its  ruler, 

1  It  has  been  proposed  to  read  "Apa/Sa  in  this  passage,  instead  of 
'Apapla.  "Apafia  (Tmj?)  was  a  place  in  Galilee,  but,  being  so  obscure, 
it  would  have  required  some  further  designation.  We  might  perhaps 
read  epijtiiav  (araba  =  solitude).  There  was  actually  a  place  called  Beth- 
Araba  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Dead  Sea  ( Jos.  xv.  6 ) . 


406    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

but  as  he  alone  could  not  accomplish  all  that  had  to  be  done., 
he  summoned  Saul  from  Tarsus  to  be  his  assistant,  perhaps  in 
the  year  42.  After  both  had  received  their  ordination  as 
apostles  (Acts  xiii.  2),  they  proceeded,  like  the  others,  on 
missionary  journeys  for  the  purpose  of  preaching  the  gospel. 


33.    CONTINUATION.     FIRST  AND   SECOND   MISSIONARY 
JOURNEYS  OP  SAINT  PAUL 

Saint  Paul's  three  missionary  journeys,  recorded  in  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  began  at  Antioch. 

4.  The  first  journey  (Acts  xiii.,  xiv.)  was  the  shortest.  It  took  place 
in  the  years  46-49.  With  Barnabas  and  his  young  nephew,  Mark,  the 
apostle  traveled  first  to  Seleucia  and  thence  to  Cyprus.  They  crossed 
the  island  from  east  to  west,  preaching  the  gospel  everywhere.  Then 
they  sailed  to  Asia  Minor.  Mark  left  them  at  Perge  in  Pamphylia  and 
went  to  Jerusalem,  whilst  Paul  and  Barnabas  visited  the  interior  of  the 
country  (Antioch  in  Pisidia,  Iconium,  Lystra  and  Derbe  in  Lycaonia), 
founding  communities  of  Christians.  Then  they  took  ship  at  Attalia  and 
returned  to  Antioch,  where  the  Christians  were  at  that  time  in  great 
excitement  regarding  the  question  whether  Gentile  Christians  were 
bound  to  keep  the  Jewish  law.  On  account  of  this  dispute  both  Paul 
and  Barnabas  attended  the  Council  of  the  Apostles  at  Jerusalem  (Acts 
xv.),  where  it  was  decided  that  the  Gentiles  were  free  from  the  Mosaic 
Law,  but  were  to  refrain  from  all  participation  in  heathen  worship  ( e.  g. 
from  sacrificial  feasts),  from  incest  (marriage  between  near  relatives) 
and  from  blood,  which  included  anything  strangled.  These  regulations 
were  made  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  the  Jews,  to  facilitate  their  entrance 
into  the  Church.  After  the  Council,  the  two  apostles  returned  to 
Antioch. 

5.  Second  missionary  journey.  Not  long  afterwards,  perhaps  in  the 
year  52,  Saint  Paul  undertook  another  journey  (see  Acts  xv.  36,  etc.). 
Barnabas  and  Mark  again  proposed  to  accompany  him,  but  Saint  Paul 
refused  to  take  Mark  with  him  and  they  separated,  though  they  did 
not  cherish  any  resentment  against  one  another,  for  later  on  we  find 
Mark  with  Saint  Paul  in  Rome  (Col.  iv.  10).  Barnabas  determined  to 
go  with  Mark  to  visit  the  communities  in  Cyprus,  whilst  Saint  Paul 
went  to  Asia  Minor  with  Silas  (Silvanus)  whom  he  had  summoned 
from  Jerusalem.  They  traveled  on  foot  through  Syria  and  Cilicia, 
then  through  Pisidia,  Lycaonia,  where  they  were  joined  by  Timothy, 
Phrygia,  Galatia  and  Mysia.  At  Troas  in  Mysia,  where  Saint  Luke  be- 
came one  of  the  apostle's  companions,1  he  had  in  a  dream  a  vision  of  a 
Macedonian,  imploring  help.  Taking  this  as  an  indication  of  God's  will 


From  this  point  onwards  in  Acts  we  read:  "ice  traveled." 


THE    BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT     407 

that  he  should  go  still  farther  west,  and  first  to  Macedonia  to  preach 
the  gospel,  he  at  once  set  out  on  the  way. 

6.  The  city  of  Philippi  was  the  first  place  in  Europe  where  he  began 
to  preach.  He  succeeded  in  establishing  a  Christian  community  there, 
which  remained  devoted  to  him,  showing  him  much  love  and  loyalty. 
From  Rome  he  subsequently  addressed  a  letter  of  consolation,  that  we 
still  possess,  to  this  community.  Saint  Luke  seems  to  have  remained 
in  Philippi  until  he  rejoined  Saint  Paul  on  his  third  journey  at  this 
point,  as  it  is  only  in  Acts  xx.  6  that  he  resumes  the  use  of  the  first 
person  plural  in  his  account.  St.  Paul  was  forced  to  leave  Philippi  after 
suffering  scourging  and  imprisonment,  and  Thessalonica  was  the  next 
scene  of  his  apostolic  labors.  He  could  stay  here  only  a  short  time,  as 
the  Jews  raised  a  disturbance,  and  he  had  to  flee  from  the  city.  The 
two  letters  written  soon  afterwards  from  Corinth  to  the  Thessalonians, 
prove,  however,  that  he  had  worked  in  Thessalonica  with  success,  and 
that  the  community  there  was  deficient  in  instruction  but  not  in  firm- 
ness of  faith.  He  had  a  similar  experience  in  Berea,  a  neighboring 
town;  there  was  again  an  uproar  among  the  Jews,  and  he  had  to  take 
flight.  Then  having  left  Silas  and  Timothy  behind,  that  they  might 
continue  to  work  in  Macedonia,  a  not  unfavorable  field  for  missionary 
enterprise,  he  himself  went  southwards  to  Athens,  where  very  few  would 
hear  him,  and  on  to  Corinth,  then  the  capital  of  Greece.  Here  he  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  a  numerous  community,  consisting  chiefly  of  Gen- 
tile Christians,  and  he  stayed  with  them  for  a  year  and  a  half.  It  was 
at  Corinth  that  he  learnt  to  know  Aquila  and  his  wife  Priscilla,  Jewish 
Christians,  who  had  been  driven  away  from  Rome,  and  they  were  of  great 
service  to  him  in  his  apostolic  work.  Silas  and  Timothy  rejoined  him 
in  Corinth.  He  seems  to  have  gone  on  one  occasion  to  Illyria  from  Cor- 
inth, as  in  Rom.  xv.  19  he  says  that  he  has  preached  the  gospel  as  far 
as  Illyria,  and  in  2  Cor.  xii.  14  and  xiii.  1,  he  says  that  before  writing 
that  epistle  he  had  already  been  twice  in  Corinth.  The  journey  to 
Illyria  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Acts,  and  no  more  suitable  date  for 
it  can  be  found.  Saint  Paul  was  finally  obliged  to  quit  Corinth, 
on  account  of  a  tumult  stirred  up  by  the  Jews,  and  he  returned  to  the 
East.  He  first  visited  Ephesus,  but  did  not  stay  there  long,  though  he 
left  Aquila  and  Priscilla  there  and  promised  to  return  at  a  later  time. 
He  sailed  to  Caesarea  in  Palestine  and  went  thence  (most  probably)  to 
Jerusalem  in  order  to  fulfill  a  vow  that  he  had  made  (Acts  xviii.  18, 
etc.).  In  the  year  55  he  revisited  Antioch.  In  the  meantime  Apollos, 
an  Alexandrian  Jew  by  birth,  who  had  received  only  the  baptism  of 
John,  had  appeared  in  Ephesus,  preaching  Christ  as  the  Messias.  Hav- 
ing been  more  accurately  instructed  in  Christianity  by  Aquila  and 
Priscilla,  he  too  went  to  Corinth,  and  by  means  of  his  ardent  zeal  and 
great  eloquence  he  won  extraordinary  popularity,  so  that  many  of  the 
Corinthians  esteemed  him  even  more  highly  than  Saint  Paul  (1  Cor.  iii. 
4,  etc.). 


408    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

34.  CONTINUATIONS     SAINT  PAUL'S     THIRD  MISSIONARY 
JOURNEY.    His  IMPRISONMENT1 

7.  After  some  time  Saint  Paul  again  traveled  through  Asia  Minor, 
revisiting   especially    the    communities    of    Christians    in    Galatia    and 
Phrygia,  and  encouraging  new  converts.     Then,  as  he  had  promised,  he 
went  to  Ephesus,  and  remained  there  nearly  three  years.     The  gospel 
made   such   progress    in   and   near   Ephesus   that  the   heathen   worship 
suffered  in  consequence,  and  the  pilgrimages  to  the  Temple  of  Artemis 
diminished.     This   caused   Demetrius   the    silversmith,   who   maintained 
himself  and  a  large  number  of  workmen  by  making  little  representations 
of  the  Temple  of  Diana,  to  stir  up  a  tumult  against  Saint  Paul,  who 
was  obliged  therefore  to  leave  Ephesus. 

8.  He  traveled  first  to  Macedonia,  then  to  Achaia,  where  he  stayed 
three  months   (Acts  xx.  3),  and  he  undoubtedly  visited  Corinth.    On  his 
return  to  Macedonia  he  was  rejoined  by  Saint  Luke.    He  had  for  a  long 
time  been   wishing  to  go  once  more  to  Jerusalem  and  then   to  Rome 
(Acts  xix.  21).     His  plan  was  carried  out,  but  not  in  the  way  he  had 
intended.     He  began  his  journey  by  sailing  to  Troas  and  going  thence 
on  foot  to  Assus.    He  went  on  with  his  companions  by  way  of  Mitylene, 
Chios  and  Samoa  to  Miletus,  where  the  elders  of  the  church  at  Ephesus 
met  him,  and  he  took  a  touching  farewell  of  them    (Acts  xx.  17-38). 
Sailing  on,  they  passed  Cyprus  on  the  left,  and  landed  at  Tyre,  and 
thence,  in  spite  of  all  the  warnings  given  by  the  Christians,  Saint  Paul 
went  on  to  Jerusalem.     Although  he  was  as  cautious  as  circumstances 
allowed,  he  was  recognized  on  the  eighth  day  by  some  Jews  from  Asia 
Minor,  and  was  only  saved  from  the  violence  and  fury  of  the  Jews  by  the 
prompt  interference  of  the  Roman  watchmen.    As  his  life  was  not  safe 
even  in  prison    (supra,  p.  404,  note  2)    he  was   conveyed  by  a  strong 
escort  of  soldiers  to  Csesarea,  and  given  into  the  charge  of  Felix,  the 
procurator,  who  kept  him  in  an  easy  kind  of  captivity,  but  did  not  re- 
lease him,  hoping  for  a  large  ransom  from  the  Christians.     Two  years 
later  Felix  transferred  the  prisoner  to  his  successor  Festus. 

9.  Festus  showed  some  inclination  to  give  the  apostle  up  to  the  Jew- 
ish Synedrium,  and  Saint  Paul,  perceiving  this,  and  knowing  what  cruel 
vengeance  he  would  have  to  expect,  used  his  rights  as  a  Roman  citizen, 
and  appealed  to  the  emperor   (Acts  xxv.  9).     The  result  of  this  action 
was  that  his  case  had  to  be  transferred  to  Rome,   and  he  had  to  be 
taken  thither  as  a  prisoner.     This  was  in  the  autumn  of  the  year  61. 
His  companions  were  Saint  Luke  and  Aristarchus,  a  Macedonian.    After 
a  long  and  stormy  voyage,  the  ship  was  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Malta, 
but  all  on  board  were  saved.    They  had  to  pass  the  winter  in  Malta,  and 
were  only  able  to  continue  their  journey  in  the  spring  of  62.     They 
landed  at  Puteoli,  and  proceeded  on  foot  to  Rome. 

10.  Saint  Paul's  imprisonment  in  Rome  was  comparatively  easy;    he 
was  allowed  to  go  out,  and  found  opportunities  of  spreading  the  gospel.2 

1  Acts  xix.  1,  etc. 

2  "  He  remained  two  whole  years  in  his  own  hired  lodging,  and  he 
received  all  that  came  in  to  him,  preaching  the  kingdom  of  God,  and 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  409 

At  this  point  the  account  of  Saint  Paul  given  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
ends  abruptly.  Tradition,  however,  tells  us  that  after  two  years  he  was 
acquitted,  and  then  undertook  a  fourth  journey,  first  to  Spain,  which  he 
had  long  intended  to  visit  (Rom.  xv.  24,  28),  then  again  to  the  East, 
and  afterwards  to  Rome,  where  he  was  imprisoned  again,  and  in  the 
year  67  on  June  29,  at  the  same  time  as  Saint  Peter,  he  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom, dying  by  the  sword  as  befitted  his  Roman  citizenship. 

We  know  nothing  with  certainty  as  to  Saint  Paul's  age.  At  the 
time  of  Saint  Stephen's  death  by  stoning,  he  was  (Acts  vii.  57)  still  a 
young  man,  certainly  under  thirty,  as  he  was  not  allowed  to  take  part 
in  the  actual  stoning,  for  a  man  under  thirty  could  not  perform  any  pub- 
lic action.  Saint  Stephen's  death  may  be  assigned  to  the  year  34;  soon 
after  it  Paul  was  employed  by  the  Synedrium  and  sent  to  Damascus,  so 
he  must  then  have  attained  the  age  of  thirty.  He  was  converted  on  his 
way,  and  for  about  thirty-three  years  he  worked  as  a  Christian  and  as 
an  apostle,  so  that  it  was  at  the  age  of  sixty-three  that  he  ended  his  life, 
witnessing  to  the  faith  with  his  blood.1 


35.   CHARACTER  OF  SAINT  PAUL  AS  A  MAN  AND  AS  A 
WRITER 

1.  In  outward  appearance  Saint  Paul  was,  according  to  all 
ancient  accounts,  very  insignificant ; 2  and  he  tells  us  this 
himself  in  II  Corinthians  x.  10.  The  external  gifts  of  a  rheto- 
rician seem  to  have  been  denied  him,  such  as  a  clear,  strong  voice, 
a  bright  and  lively  glance,  assurance  and  resolution.  The  ab- 
sence of  these  gifts  explains  why  Apollos,  being  a  fluent  speaker, 
won  more  favor  than  Saint  Paul  in  many  quarters  in  Corinth. 

teaching  the  things  which  concern  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  with  all  con- 
fidence, without  prohibition"  (Acts  xxviii.  30,  31). 

1  Reithmayr  denies  that  the  apostle  was  ever  released,  and  that  he 
made  a  fourth  journey.     Kaulen,  Spitta,  oppose  this  view.     Eusebius 
(Hist.  Eccl.,  II,  22)  and  Saint  Jerome  (De  Viris  Illustr.,  c.  5,  Comm.  in 

Amos,  V,  8)  state  definitely  that  .he  did  regain  his  freedom.  Saint  Clem- 
ent of  Rome  (Ep.,  I,  c.  5)  says  that  Saint  Paul  went  to  the  limits  of 
the  West.  In  the  Muratorian  Fragment,  where  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
is  mentioned,  there  is  an  allusion  to  a  journey  of  St.  Paul  ab  urbe  ad 
Spaniam  proficiscentis.  It  is  probable  that  Saint  Paul  did  not  stay  long 
in  Spain,  and  traveled  thence  to  Crete,  where  he  left  Titus,  and  then  to 
Ephesus,  where  he  left  Timothy.  He  visited  various  communities  in  the 
interior  of  Asia  Minor,  went  by  way  of  Miletus  (.2  Tim.  iv.  20)  to  Mace- 
donia and  Achaia,  then  to  Nicopolis  in  Epirus,  whither  Titus  was  to  fol- 
low him  (Titus  iii.  12),  and  finally  back  to  Rome. 

2  Niceph.,  Hist.  EccL,  II,  37  (Migne,  Patres  Or.,  145-147). 


410    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Moreover  Saint  Paul  purposely  avoided  trying  to  please  by 
means  of  human  artifices  and  especially  by  rhetorical  tricks 
of  speech,  for  he  did  not  wish  the  glory  to  be  his,  but  God's, 
and  he  was  unwilling  that  any  one  should  ascribe  his  success  to 
his  own  human  exertions.1  He  was  content  to  be  the  humble 
instrument  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Like  Jonas  after  his  wonder- 
ful rescue,  he  was  always  anxious  when  preaching,  and  feared 
lest  he  should  fail  in  his  task  and  be  rejected  because  of  his 
former  sins  (I  Cor.  ix.  16,  etc.,  and  27).  Our  Saviour  had 
commissioned  him,  in  compensation  for  the  injury  he  had  done 
the  Church,  to  spread  the  gospel  among  the  Gentiles,  and  this 
duty  he  fulfilled  more  abundantly  than  all  the  other  apostles 
(I  Cor.  xv.  10),  for  he  not  only  attained  greater  success,  but 
incurred  more  trouble  and  suffering.2  Amidst  it  all  he  showed 
himself  so  absolutely  unselfish  that  in  spite  of  all  the  pressure 
of  his  apostolic  work  and  the  care  for  so  many  churches,  he 
nevertheless  earned  his  own  living  by  his  trade,  and  was  a 
burden  to  no  one.  He  regarded  his  labors  merely  as  repara- 
tion for  his  former  faults,  and  he  expected  a  reward  only 
because  he  worked  " without  charge"  (Acts  xx.  34;  I  Cor. 
ix.  18). 

2.  Saint  Paul  wrote  no  special  instructions  on  matters  of 
faith  and  morals  intended  for  Christians  in  general,  nor  did 
he  compose  any  strictly  historical  works,  unless  we  ascribe  the 
third  gospel  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  to  him.  We  have, 
however,  written  remains  of  his  work,  for  his  zeal  impelled 
him  to  do  what  he  could  to  serve  the  faithful  with  his  written 
words  where  he  could  not  be  with  them  in  person.3  We  possess 
fourteen  epistles  by  him,  of  various  lengths.  Although  most 
of  them  are  occasional  pamphlets,  they  are  priceless  jewels  from 
the  rich  treasury  of  his  divinely  gifted  intellect.  In  them  Saint 

1  I  Cor.  ii.  1-4 ;   II  Cor.  x.  10 :    "  For  his  epistles  indeed,  say  they,  are 
weighty  and  strong,  but  his  bodily  presence  is  weak  and  his  speech 
contemptible." 

2  In  II  Cor.  xi.,  being  suspected,  he  is  compelled  to  speak  of  his 
labors  and  sufferings,  and  what  he  tells  us  of  them  in  that  passage  is 
certainly  not  all. 

8  Other  apostles  did  the  same,  and  so  did  the  Fathers  of  the  Church, 
and  our  bishops  still  continue  the  practice. 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  411 

Paul  shows  himself  a  master  of  the  art  of  bringing  conviction 
home  to  the  understanding,  of  touching  the  heart  and  of  rous- 
ing the  will.  The  zeal  of  this  man,  amidst  his  manifold 
occupations,  the  vigor  and  fullness  of  his  thoughts,  the  ardor 
of  his  heroic  faith  are  so  great  that  the  reader  is  often  unable 
to  follow  his  thought,  and  so  many  passages  remain  obscure,  a 
fact  that  already  Saint  Peter  regretted  (II  Peter  iii.  16).  The 
topics  that  he  deals  with  most  frequently  are  Christ  and  His 
relation  to  the  world,  the  reconciliation  of  mankind  with  God 
through  Christ's  Blood,  salvation  at  the  day  of  judgment,  pos- 
sible to  all  through  submission  to  Christ,  and  the  advantages 
of  the  new  covenant  in  comparison  with  the  old,  that  is  now 
at  an  end. 

36.   SEQUENCE  OF  SAINT  PAUL'S  EPISTLES 

Saint  Paul's  epistles  were  generally  read  at  public  worship 
in  the  communities  to  which  they  were  addressed,  and  collec- 
tions of  them  were  made  at  a  very  early  date.  The  first  trace 
of  a  collection  is  in  II  Peter  iii.  15.  By  the  middle  of  the 
second  century  the  heretic  Marcion  reckoned  that  there  were 
ten  epistles,  for  he  omitted  the  pastoral  letters  and  the  epistle 
to  the  Hebrews.  Most  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  recognized 
thirteen  as  by  Saint  Paul,  for  they  ascribed  Hebrews  to  an- 
other author.  The  collection  in  our  Canon  is  arranged  with 
reference  not  to  the  date  of  origin  but  to  the  importance  of 
the  churches  to  which  the  epistles  were  addressed.  If  they 
are  put  in  chronological  order  they  stand  thus: 

(1),  (2)  and  (3).  The  two  epistles  to  the  Thessalonians  and  the 
epistle  to  the  Galatians  were  written  during  Saint  Paul's  first  residence 
in  Corinth,  about  the  year  53,  so  they  belong  to  his  first  missionary 
journey.  Three  epistles  belong  to  his  third  journey;  viz.  (4)  the  first 
epistle  to  the  Corinthians  was  written  at  Ephesus  in  58 ;  ( 5 )  the  second 
to  the  Corinthians  from  Macedonia,  also  in  58,  and  (6)  the  epistle  to  the 
Romans  during  the  apostle's  second  visit  to  Corinth,  probably  in  59. 

Saint  Paul  wrote  four  epistles  whilst  he  was  a  prisoner  in  Rome  for 
the  first  time;  viz.  (7)  the  epistle  to  the  Philippians,  about  62,  and  in 
63  those  to  (8)  the  Ephesians,  (9)  the  Colossians  and  (10)  Philemon. 
(11)  The  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  generally  believed  to  have  been 
written  in  Italy  in  63  or  64,  after  Saint  Paul  had  been  set  at  liberty. 
It  is  generally  assumed  that  (12)  the  first  epistle  to  Timothy  and  (13) 


412    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

the  epistle  to  Titus  were  written  about  65,  when  Saint  Paul  was  on  his 
fourth  journey  in  the  East,  and,  finally,  (14)  the  second  epistle  to  Tim- 
othy was  written  during  his  second  imprisonment  in  Rome  in  66  or  67. 


37.   THE  EPISTLE  TO  T:EE  ROMANS 

(16  chapters) 

1.  Motive.  We  know  from  Horace  and  other  Roman  authors 
that  even  before  the  time  of  Christ  there  were  many  Jews  in 
Rome,  the  capital  of  the  world,  and  that  they  possessed  several 
synagogues,  which  were  frequently  visited  hy  Gentiles.  It  is 
possible,  therefore,  that  some  account  of  our  Saviour  reached 
Rome  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Tiberius  or  that  of  Caligula.  It 
is  certain  that  a  congregation  of  Christians  existed  there  in 
the  earlier  part  of  the  reign  of  Claudius,  and  the  epistle  is 
addressed  to  readers  assumed  to  be  well  instructed  and  stead- 
fast in  Christianity.  Every  early  Christian  writer  names  Saint 
Peter  as  the  founder  of  this  church;  he  had  left  Palestine 
because  of  the  persecution  under  Herod  Agrippa  and  came  to 
Rome  soon  after  the  accession  of  Claudius.1  It  is  probable  that 
he  converted  first  some  Jews  to  Christianity,  but  they  were 
soon  joined  by  Gentiles.  In  his  life  of  the  Emperor  Claudius 
(chapter  xxv.),  Suetonius  says  that  he  expelled  all  the  Jews 
from  Rome  because  of  their  incessant  quarrels.2  He  mentions 
a  certain  "  Chrestos  "  as  the  instigator  of  these  disputes,  so  we 
may  suppose  that  the  pagan  writer  was  not  accurately  in- 
formed, and  had  heard  of  quarrels  about  Christ,  and  that  dis- 
turbances had  broken  out  among  the  Jews  concerning  the 


1  Acts  xii.  17,  where  the  author  cautiously  writes:    ttropetiQy   els 
r(yrrov.     Cf.  also  War  Petrus  in  Romf    Minister,  1872;    Kirchenlex.,  art. 
Petrus;    Schmid,  Petrus  in  Rom,  Lucerne,  1879   (see  p.  438). 

2  Judceos   impulsore   Chresto   perpetuo    tumultuantes   Roma    expulit. 
(In  acordance  with  iotacism,  97  may  be  pronounced  like  t,  so  that  XPIJOTTOS 
=  xPlffr°*'     But  even  if  this  pronunciation  was  not  usual  in  Rome,  it 
would  be  very  natural  to  put  a  well-known  word  like  xp^^^s  =  probus, 
honest,  instead  of  the  still  unfamiliar  xp^rte-  Cf>  Tertullian,  Apolog.,  3.  ) 
Of  the  expelled  Jews  probably  many  returned,  as  did  Aquila  and  Pris- 
cilla  (Rom.  xvi.  3).     Saint  Peter  too  seems  to  have  been  amongst  those 
driven  out;    he  probably  went  at  first  to  Asia  Minor,  whither  he  after- 
wards sent  his  epistles. 


THE   BOOKS    OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT     413 

Christian  religion.  It  was  perhaps  in  consequence  of  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Jews  that  the  majority  of  the  Christians  in 
Eome  were  Gentiles  by  birth,  as  we  read  in  the  epistle.1  For 
a  long  time  a  bond  of  mutual  esteem  and  love  had  existed 
between  Saint  Paul  and  this  community,  and  he  had  greatly 
desired  to  be  able  to  visit  Eome ; 2  but  as  this  was  not  possible 
just  then,  he  sought  to  benefit  the  Eoman  Christians  by  means 
of  a  written  communication,  and  he  also  wished  to  see  the 
principles  that  he  insisted  upon  duly  appreciated  at  the  center 
of  the  whole  civilized  world. 

What  caused  the  quarrels  was  the  discussion  whether  salvation 
through  the  Messias  was  limited  to  the  people  of  Israel,  as  the  Jews 
Deferred  to  think,  or  was  intended  to  be  within  reach  of  all  nations. 
In  the  first  case  all  Gentiles,  in  order  to  attain  to  salvation,  would  have 
to  begin  by  submitting  to  the  Mosaic  Law,  and  could  only  thus  obtain 
a  share  in  the  benefits  of  redemption.  If  this  Jewish  opinion  had  pre- 
vailed, as  far  as  human  reason  can  judge,  Christianity  could  scarcely 
have  become  common  to  all  nations.  The  correct  doctrine  and  practice 
was  stated  clearly  at  the  Apostolic  Council,  but  for  a  long  time  there 
were  great  difficulties  in  carrying  the  rules  into  execution. 

2.  Contents.  In  this  epistle  Saint  Paul  gives  his  opinions 
fully  regarding  paganism,  Judaism  and  Christianity.  The  con- 
tents of  the  book  are  therefore  chiefly  dogmatic  (chapter  i.-xi.), 
though  at  the  end  they  become  ethical  (xii.-xvi.). 

Dogmatic  portion  of  the  epistle.  In  the  introduction  (i.-iii.)  Saint 
Paul  speaks  of  the  universal  sinfulness  of  mankind,  and  the  need  of  re- 
demption. All,  not  only  the  Gentiles,  who  did  not  know  the  law  of  Moses, 
but  also  the  Jews,  who  were  under  the  law,  have  merited  rejection  by 
God  through  their  sins. 

Argument.  The  doctrine  of  salvation.  The  way  to  be  justified  before 
God  has  been  opened  to  all  men  by  faith  in  Jesus  Christ.  This  way  has 
been  all  along  the  only  possible  one;  for  man  could  never  please  God 
otherwise  than  by  faith.  David  and  Abraham  were  justified  not  by  the 
law,  but  by  faith  in  a  future  Redeemer  (iv.).  This  same  justification  is 
now  won  through  faith  in  and  devotion  to  the  Son  of  God,  appearing  in 
our  flesh,  who,  being  Himself  free  from  sin,  by  His  obedience  even  to  the 
death  of  the  Cross,  has  removed  the  guilt  which  was  brought  upon  man- 
kind by  Adam's  disobedience  (v.).  Henceforth  it  is  possible  for  every 
man  justified  through  Christ  to  live  in  a  manner  pleasing  to  God,  for  by 

1  Rom.  i.  5,  6,  13;    vi.  17,  etc.;    xi.  13;    xv.  5,  etc.     That  there  were 
Jews  amongst  them  appears  from  Rom.  ii.  17;    iv.  1,  etc.;    vii.  1,  etc. 
3  Acts  xix.  22;    Rom.  i.  13;    xv.  22-24. 


414    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

baptism  the  malice  inherited  from  Adam  is  destroyed,  and  the  Christian 
is  brought  under  the  influence  of  the  grace  that  proceeds  from  Christ 
( vi. ) .  The  Mosaic  Law  could  not  confer  this  capability  upon  man,  but 
left  him  powerless  against  sin,  because  grace  was  wanting  (vii.).  But 
through  the  spirit  of  Christ  man  can  overcome  sin  and  the  flesh,  and, 
being  chosen  by  God  in  the  freedom  of  His  grace,  can  bear  with  joyful 
hope  all  the  sufferings  of  earthly  life  (viii.).  In  reply  to  the  question 
how  matters  now  stand  with  regard  to  Judaism,  Saint  Paul  says  that  for 
the  moment  the  Jews  have  been  rejected  by  God,  and  their  place  has 
been  taken  by  tb.e  Gentiles,  but  in  the  fullness  of  time  (xi.  25,  26)  Israel 
shall  find  mercy  by  adhering  to  Jesus  Christ  (ix.-xi.).  Cf.  Is.  xi.  11,  xliii. 
5-7;  Jer.  iii.  18,  etc. 

In  the  ethical  part  of  the  epistle)  Saint  Paul  speaks  of  the  fruits  that 
the  faithful  ought  to  bring  forth  in  their  life.  Following  our  Lord's 
example,  they  should  bring  forth  chiefly  humility  and  love,  which  shows 
itself  in  loyal  fulfillment  of  duties,  and  in  good  will  even  towards  en- 
emies (xii.),  and  further  in  obedience  to  the  government.  They  must 
also  act  with  consideration  towards  the  weak  and  imperfect  (xiv.),  and 
preserve  harmony  by  the  utmost  submission  to  one  another  (xv.). 

The  closing  chapter  (xvi.)  contains  personal  communications  and 
greetings. 

3.  Time  and  Place  of  Writing.  According  to  xv.  23,  etc. 
(cf.  I  Cor.  xvi.  1,  etc.;  II  Cor.  viii.  14;  Acts  xix.  21),  Saint 
Paul  wrote  this  letter  when  he  was  in  Achaia  on  his  third 
journey.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  he  wrote  from  Corinth, 
for  he  recommends  to  the  Eomans  (xvi.  1)  a  Corinthian 
deaconess  named  Phoebe,  who  was  going  to  Eome,  and  probably 
took  the  letter  with  her,  and  he  also  conveys  greetings  from 
Corinthian  Christians  (Caius,  xvi.  23;  cf.  I  Cor.  i.  14;  Timo- 
theus  and  Sopater,  xvi.  21;  cf.  Acts  xx.  4).  The  date  must  be 
the  spring  of  the  year  59,  as  the  apostle  was  in  Philippi  on 
his  way  back  from  Achaia  at  Easter,  and  wished  to  celebrate 
Pentecost  in  Jerusalem  (Acts  xx.  6-16). 

The  epistle  is  generally  regarded  as  authentic,  although  some  modern 
critics,  like  Marcion  of  old,  would  reject  the  last  two  chapters  (xv.  and 
xvi.),  because  they  contain  some  expressions  favorable  to  the  Jews  and 
apparently  not  in  Saint  Paul's  style.  He  was,  however,  by  no  means 
hostile  to  the  Jews,  and  only  regretted  their  antagonism  to  Christ.  (Cf. 
i.  16;  iii.  2;  ix.  1-5;  x.  1.)  Spitta  thinks  that  the  epistle  consists 
of  two  letters  put  together,  both  written  by  Saint  Paul.  The  longer  may 
have  been  written  in  58  at  Corinth,  but  the  shorter,  containing  the  last 
few  chapters,  was  not  written  before  63  or  64,  after  the  apostle's  release 
from  prison.  Tradition,  however,  from  the  earliest  times  has  accepted 
the  unity  of  the  epistle. 


THE   BOOKS    OF    THE    NEW   TESTAMENT     415 
38.   THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO  THE  CORINTHIANS 

(16  chapters) 

1.  Corinth,  a  rich  and  prosperous  trading  city,  was  com- 
pletely  destroyed   in   146   B.  c   by   Lucius   Mummius.      Julius 
CaBsar  rebuilt  it  in  46  B.  c.  and  it  quickly  revived,  becoming 
the  capital  of  the  Roman  province  of  Achaia.    As  its  prosperity 
increased,  its  immorality,  for  which  it  was  notorious  through- 
out the  world,  again  attracted  attention. 

2.  Motive.      Saint   Paul,    being    on    his    second    missionary 
journey,    went    from    Athens    to    Corinth,    to   try   to    estabish 
Christianity  there,  and  his  attempt  was  successful.     When  he 
left  the  city,   eighteen  months  later,  he  had  the  consolation 
of  knowing  that  he  was  leaving  a  large  body  of   Christians, 
chiefly  Gentiles  of  the  lower  classes    (i.   26).     After  his  de- 
parture many  disorders  arose  in  the  new  community,  and  many 
converts  went  back  to  their  former  immorality.     On  this  ac- 
count Saint  Paul  wrote  a  letter,  now  no  longer  extant,  bidding 
the  Christians,  who  had  remained  faithful,  to  have  no  inter- 
course with  such  persons    (I   Cor.   v.   9).     Whilst  he  was  at 
Ephesus,   where  he   remained   some  considerable  time,  he  re- 
ceived still  worse  news  from  Corinth,  and  determined  to  write 
a  detailed  letter,  which  is  what  we  still  possess  as  the  First 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 

3.  Contents.     The  news  mentioned  above  had  reached  him 
through  three  channels,     (a)   Chloe,  a  Christian  of  good  posi- 
tion, had  let  him  know  that  parties  had  been  formed  in  the 
community,  and  by  what  means.     One  party  called  itself  after 
Paul,  another  •  after  Apollos,  a  third  after  Peter,  a  fourth  after 
Christ  Himself,      (b)    From  other  sources  news  had  reached 
him  of  the  careless  mode  of  life  among  many  of  the  recent 
converts,  of  the  incestuous  marriage  of  a  Christian,  and  of  the 
readiness  with  which  many  of  the   faithful  had  recourse   to 
lawsuits,      (c)    Finally  the  Corinthian  church  itself  had  sent 
messengers  to  Saint  Paul  at  Ephesus,  bringing  him  a  letter 
to  ask  for  instruction  on  several  points  of  doctrine  and  disci- 
pline.    In  his  epistle  the  apostle  deals  with  all  these  matters 
in  succession,  so  we  may  distinguish  three  sections  in  it. 


416    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

1.  (Chapters  i.-iv.)   Saint  Paul  discusses  the  existence  of  a  party 
spirit  which  he  most  decidedly  condemns. 

2.  ( Chapters  v.  and  vi. )   He  gives  orders  that  the  man  guilty  of  incest 
shall  be  expelled  from  the  community;    he  blames  the  litigious,  who 
instead   of    agreeing   peaceably   with    one    another,    seek    justice   before 
heathen  tribunals,  and  he  speaks  of  the  disgrace  of  immorality. 

3.  In  reply  to  the  questions  addressed  to  him  by  the  church,  he  dis- 
cusses   (vii.)    marriage  and  virginity,    (viii.)    eating  things   offered  to 
idols,  which  is  generally  permitted,  but    (ix.)    if  there  is  any  risk  of 
scandal,  it  is  to  be  avoided;    he  speaks  of  participation  in  idolatrous 
feasts,  that  cannot  be  tolerated   (x.);    and  of  various  abuses   (xi.)  that 
had  crept  into  the  assemblies  for  public  worship    (women  with  heads 
uncovered,  celebration  of  the  Holy  Eucharist),  and  then  he  goes  on  to 
describe  the  charismata,  i.  e.  the  extraordinary  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
(xii.),  then  the  superiority  of  charity  to  them  all    (xiii.),  especially 
(xiv.)  the  charisma  of  speaking  with  tongues  and  prophecy,  and  finally 
(xv.)  he  speaks  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body.    He  concludes  (xvi.)with 
a  request  for  money  to  be  collected  for  the  poor  Jewish  Christians  in 
Jerusalem ;   he  sends  personal  messages  and  greetings. 

4.  Time  and  Place.    In  xvi.  3-8  Saint  Paul  says  that  he  is 
writing    from    Ephesus,    and    intends    to    remain    there    until 
Pentecost,  and  then  go   to   Macedonia  and  Achaia,   and   also 
to  Corinth.     This  can  have  been  only  during  his  third  journey, 
towards   the  end   of   his   residence   in   Ephesus;    so   we   may 
assume   that   the   epistle   was   written   in   the   spring   of   the 
year  58. 

39.   THE  SECOND  EPISTLE  TO  THE  CORINTHIANS 

(13  chapters) 

1.  Motive.  After  dispatching  the  first  epistle,  Saint  Paul 
sent  Titus  to  Corinth,  so  that  he  might  report  to  him  on  the 
impression  made  by  the  epistle  and  the  effect  produced.  In 
the  meantime  the  apostle  left  Ephesus  and  met  Titus  in 
Macedonia,  after  having  long  expected  him  with  the  greatest 
anxiety.  The  news  that  Titus  brought  was  good;  the  letter 
had  had  a  favorable  effect  upon  the  Corinthians,  and  the  man 
who  had  committed  incest  was  genuinely  penitent.  Also  the 
collection  ordered  for  the  church  in  Jerusalem  was  making 
some  progress,  though  not  a  very  great  one.  Some  serious 
evils,  however,  still  were  visible.  Many,  filled  with  party  spirit, 
cherished  prejudices  against  Saint  Paul,  believing  him  to  be 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  417 

ambitious,  untrustworthy  and  dishonest.  The  tendency,  too,  to 
follow  heathen  practices  still  existed,  and  showed  itself  in 
participation  in  idolatrous  feasts  (II  Cor.  vi.  14-18) ;  more- 
over the  adherents  of  the  Jewish  party  were  more  embittered 
than  ever  against  Saint  Paul.  All  these  facts  impelled  the 
apostle  to  write  a  second  letter,  which  Titus,  who  was  glad 
to  return  to  Corinth,  took  with  him. 

2.  Object  and  Contents.  Defense  of  himself  and  exhortation 
to  charity. 

The  epistle  falls  into  three  parts;  the  first  contains  Saint  Paul's  self- 
defense  addressed  to  the  community  in  general,  the  second  his  self-defense 
addressed  to  the  Judaizing  party,  and  the  third  his  exhortation  to  good 
works. 

1.  (i.-vii.)   Saint  Paul  speaks  of  himself  in  relation  to  the  church 
at  Corinth,  and  explains  the  misunderstandings  that  had  disturbed  it.    As 
a  pledge  of  the  restoration  of  harmony,  he  desires  that  the  incestuous 
man,  who  is  now  penitent,  shall  be  re-admitted  to  the  congregation   (ii. 
5-11).     He  repeatedly  expresses  his  joy  that  the  Corinthians  have  been 
won  over  to  him  and  so  to  true  Christianity.     ( Cf.  especially  vii.  4,  etc. ) 

2.  (viii.,  ix.)   The  Corinthians  are  again  urged  to  collect  money  for 
the  Jewish  Christians  in  Jerusalem  —  works  of  mercy  always  ought  to 
be  performed.1 

3.  (x.-xiii.)  Arguments   against   the   Judaizing   party.     Defense   of 
Saint  Paul's  person  and  doctrine.    Announcement  of  his  coming. 

In  this  epistle,  more  than  in  any  other,  Saint  Paul  speaks  from  his 
heart.  On  reading  it,  we  can  feel  that  he  had  not  merely  won  the  new 
converts  to  Christ,  but  had  done  so  almost  with  violence,  and  had  filled 
them  at  the  same  time  with  wonderful  affection  for  himself,  since  they 
saw  with  what  unselfishness  he  endured  all  that  was  painful  in  his  labo- 
rious work  as  an  apostle,  without  ever  relaxing  his  zeal. 

3.  Time  and  Place.  The  epistle  was  written  in  Macedonia 
(viii.  1,  ix.  4),  according  to  several  subscriptions  at  Philippi, 
in  the  summer  months  of  the  year  58.2 

1  Saint  Paul  laid  so  much  stress  on  this  matter  because  he  considered 
(Rom.  xv.  27)    that  the  Gentile  Christians  were  bound  to  show  their 
gratitude  for  the  gift  of  Christianity  to  the  parent  church  at  Jerusalem. 
We  learn  from  Gal.  ii.   10  that  he  had  personally  undertaken  to  look 
after  the  poor  on  the  occasion  of  the  Apostolic  Council.     The  Jewish 
Christians,  hated  and  despised  by  their  own  nation,  and  for  the  most  part 
reduced  to  poverty,  were  in  danger  of  falling  back  into  unbelief  and 
Judaism.    See  infra,  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  5. 

2  If  Saint  Paul  left  Ephesus  at  Pentecost  (I  Cor.  xvi.  8),  and  if  he 
left  Philippi  again  about  Easter,  59    (Acts  xx.  6),  in  order  to  go  to 


418    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

The  authenticity  of  both  epistles  to  the  Corinthians  is  universally 
recognized.  The  first  particularly  is  expressly  mentioned  in  Saint 
Clement's  first  letter  to  the  Corinthians,  c.  47. 


40.   THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  GALATIANS 

(6  chapters) 

1.  Galatia,  in  Asia  Minor,,  took  its  name  from  the  Galata?, 
=  Galli  =  Kelts,   who   settled  there   in   257   B.  c.     Some   off- 
shoots of  the  great  Gallic  race  from  the  far  West  gradually 
made  their  way  through  Pannonia  and  Illyria  to  Asia  Minor, 
and  there  entered  the  army  of  King  Mcomedes  of  Bithynia, 
receiving  from  him,  in  return  for  their  services,  part  of  ancient 
Phrygia,  with  the  addition  of  a  portion  of  Bithynia,  to  be 
their  dwelling  place.     Their  chief  towns  were  Ancyra,  Tavium 
and  Pessinus.     From  24  B.  c.  onwards  Galatia  was,  a  Eoman 
province. 

At  the  time  of  the  apostles  the  name  Galatia  was  given  not  merely 
to  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Galatse,  but  to  the  whole  Province, 
which  contained,  besides  Galatia  proper,  Lycaonia,  Pisidia  and  Pamphylia 
lying  to  the  south  of  it.  Saint  Paul  visited  these  districts  on  his  first 
missionary  journey  (Acts  xiii.  13,  etc.,  xiv.),  but  did  not  reach  Galatia 
proper.  It  is  possible  that  he  went  there  on  his  second  and  third  jour- 
neys, but  it  is  more  likely  that  this  epistle  is  addressed  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Roman  Province  of  Galatia,  and  not  to  the  Galatae,  or  at  least 
not  to  them  alone.  Comely  takes  this  view,  and  V.  Weber  and  Belser 
agree  with  him.  ( 1 )  According  to  Gal.  ii.  5,  Saint  Paul,  at  the  Council, 
resisted  his  opponents,  "  that  the  truth  of  the  gospel  might  continue  with 
you."  This  seems  to  show  that  Christianity  had  been  preached  in  Gala- 
tia before  the  Apostolic  Council.  (2)  In  the  epistle  Saint  Paul  speaks 
of  Barnabas  (ii.  1,  9,  13)  as  of  a  well-known  person,  but  it  was  only  on 
the  first  missionary  journey  that  Barnabas  could  have  become  known 
there.  (3)  Saint  Paul  always  follows  the  Roman  usage  in  speaking  of 
places  —  he  means  by  Achaia,  Macedonia  and  Asia,  the  Roman  prov- 
inces of  those  names,  and  not  the  older  regions  to  which  they  once 
applied. 

2.  Motive.    On  his  missionary  journeys  in  Asia  Minor  Saint 
Paul  visited  this  province  and  preached  the  gospel  there  with 

Jerusalem,  having  previously  spent  three  months  in  Achaia,  we  may  be- 
lieve that  the  epistle  was  written  in  August  or  September,  allowing 
some  months  for  traveling.  Kaulen  thinks  it  was  written  at  the  end 
of  June,  Comely  in  the  autumn  of  the  year  58. 


THE   BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT     419 

success.  But  after  his  departure  Jews  came  to  Galatia,  who 
tried  to  mislead  the  people  and  rouse  them  to  hostility  against 
Saint  Paul,  calling  upon  them  to  submit  to  the  Jewish  law 
as  well  as  to  Christianity,  if  they  would  be  saved.  We  are 
not  told  by  whom  Saint  Paul  was  informed  of  the  danger 
threatening  his  Galatian  converts,  but  he  sought  to  avert  the 
evil  by  means  of  this  epistle,  which  must  be  regarded  as  a 
circular  letter,  for  it  is  not  addressed  to  one  particular  church, 
but  "to  the  churches  of  Galatia"  (i.  2).1 

3.  Contents  and  Object.     Kejection  of  the  unjustifiable  de- 
mands of  the  Judaizing  party. 

The  epistle  consists  of  three  parts,  each  of  two  chapters:  i.  and  ii. 
Saint  Paul's  apostleship  amd  doctrine  are  of  divine  origin,  and  he  is  in 
complete  accord  with  the  other  apostles,  iii.  and  iv.  The  doctrine  that 
he  preaches  harmonizes  with  the  history  of  the  old  covenant,  which  bears 
the  same  relation  to  the  new  as  Agar  to  Sara.  v.  and  vi.  To  accept  the 
Mosaic  Law,  or  to  add  it  to  the  gospel,  is  unnecessary  and  reprehensible. 

4.  Time  and  Place.    It  is  generally  assumed  that  the  epistle 
was  written  in  56,  during  Saint  Paul's  visit  to  Ephesus  on  his 
third  missionary  journey.     The  contents,  however,  point  to  its 
having  been  written  during  the  second  journey,  for  the  vivid 
description  of  the  proceedings  at  the  Apostolic  Council,  and  of 
the  dispute  with  Saint  Peter  concerning  the  legalia  at  Antioch, 
indicates   that  these  events   were  still  fresh   in   Saint  Paul's 
memory.     It  may  have  been  written  at  Corinth,  in  53  or  54, 
not  long  after  the  epistles  to  the  Thessalonians.2 

The  authenticity  of  this  epistle  was  formerly  unquestioned,  but  has 
recently  been  challenged  by  some  non-Catholic  critics. 


1  "Paul,  an  apostle  .  .  .  and  all  the  brethren  who  are  with  me,  to 
the  churches  of  Galatia." 

2  Val.  Weber  in  discussing  this  epistle  tries  to  prove  not  only  that 
the  Galatians  to  whom  the  epistle  is  addressed  were  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Roman  province  of  Galatia,  and  so  were  the  southern  Galatians, 
converted  on  Saint  Paul's  first  journey,  but  also  that  the  epistle  was 
written  in  48  or  49,  before  the  Apostolic  Council;    this  would  make  it 
the  earliest  of  all  the  Pauline  epistles.     Belser,  like  Weber,  thinks  it  is 
addressed  to  Southern  Galatians,  and  was  written  perhaps  at  Antioch  in 
Syria,  in  the  year  49.     Steinmann  believes  it  to  be  addressed  to  the 
Galatians  in  the  north  of  the  province,  and  to  have  been  written  at 
Ephesus  in  54  or  55. 


420    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 
41.     THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  EPHESIANS 

(6  chapters) 

1.  Ephesus  is  situated  on  the  seacoast  of  Ionia,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Caystrus,  somewhat  to  the  south  of  Smyrna.     It  was 
a  very  ancient  city  of  high  reputation.     The  Temple  of  Diana 
was  especially  famous;    it  was  burnt  down  by  Herostratus  in 
356   B.  c.,,   but  was  rebuilt,   and  ranked   as  one  of  the  seven 
wonders   of  the  world.     In  133   Ephesus  became   the  capital 
of   the   Roman   province  of   Asia.      In  early   Christian   times 
(431  A.D  .)    the  third  general   Council  against  Nestorius  was 
held  here.     Ephesus  was  destroyed  by  the  Turks  and  is  now  a 
village,  called  Aja  Soluk. 

2.  Motive.     On  his  second  missionary  journey  Saint  Paul 
went  on  to  Ephesus  from  Corinth,  and  found  a  community  of 
Christians  there  (Acts  xviii.  21).     On  his  third  journey,  after 
traveling  through  Galatia  and  Phrygia,  he  again  visited  Ephesus, 
and  remained  there  from  two  to  three  years.     He  was  forced 
to  leave,  owing  to  Demetrius'  revolt,  but  he  always  retained 
particular  affection  for  the  faithful  in  and  near  Ephesus,  and 
the  touching  words  that  he  spoke  in  Miletus  when  he  bade 
them  farewell  are  a  witness  to  it  (Acts  xx.).    When  he  was  in 
prison  he  still  tried,  by  means  of  the  epistle  preserved  to  us, 
to  encourage  the  faithful  in  living  a  Christian  life,  for  they 
were  in  danger  of  being  led  astray  by  those  who  wished  to  sow 
the  seed  of  later  Gnosticism.     The  doctrine  concerning  angels, 
strongly  emphasized  and  accurately  stated,  is  aimed  at  these 
enemies  (i.  21,  iii.  10,  vi.  12). 

3.  Place.     Saint  Paul  wrote  the  epistle  from  prison  (iii.  1, 
iv.  1,  vi.  20),  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  it  was  from  Cassarea 
or  from  Rome  that  he  addressed  the  Ephesians.     He  is  gen- 
erally believed  to  have  written  it  in  Rome,  and  to  have  dis- 
patched it  with  the  letters  to  the  Colossians  and  Philemon.    If 
this  be  the  case,  it  was  written  in  63. 

4.  Difficulties.     It  is  remarkable  that  there  are  no  personal 
touches  in  this  epistle;   the  wording  is  very  general,  and  almost 
suggests   (i.  15,  iii.  1,  2)   that  Saint  Paul  had  not  come  into 


THE    BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT     421 

contact  with  his  readers.  Commentators  have  doubted,  there- 
fore, whether  this  epistle  was  really  intended  for  the  Ephesians. 
It  is  true  that  in  the  first  verse  the  words  ev  'E^eW  occur, 
but  in  the  earliest  manuscripts  it  is  still  possible  to  see  that 
they  have  been  inserted  by  a  later  hand.  In  Codex  B  they 
are  in  the  margin,  in  Codex  tf  they  are  wanting.  We  may 
therefore  suppose  that  it  was  intended  primarily  for  Ephesus, 
but  was  to  be  sent  as  a  circular  letter  to  all  the  other  churches 
of  the  province  of  Asia,  viz.  Smyrna,  Pergamus,  Thyatira,  Sardes, 
Philadelphia  and  Laodicea. 

5.  The  contents  are  partly  doctrinal,  partly  ethical. 

Chapters  i.-iii.  are  doctrinal,  for  Saint  Paul  states  how  great  is  the 
happiness  of  those  Gentiles  who  now  belong  to  the  Church,  the  spotless 
Bride  of  Christ.  God's  intention  to  save  not  only  His  own  people,  but 
also  the  morally  corrupt  Gentiles,  through  Jesus  Christ,  was  formerly 
concealed,  but  is  now  manifest,  and  Saint  Paul  has  the  commission  and 
the  will  to  bring  the  tidings  of  it  to  the  Gentiles.  Chapters  iv.-vi.  are 
ethical.  He  states  that  all  the  faithful  collectively  form  one  body,  and 
they  must  show  themselves  to  be  one,  by  the  harmony  between  the 
various  limbs.  They  must  no  longer  live  as  heathen,  but  must  practice 
Christian  virtues,  and  by  goodness  of  life  correspond  to  God's  loving 
intention.  Admonitions  to  Christian  families. 

6.  Carrier  of  the  Epistle.     Tychicus,  a  friend  and  assistant 
of  Saint  Paul  in  his  work  of  teaching,  was  to  carry  this  epistle 
(vi.   21).     The   same   man   conveyed   also   the   epistle  to   the 
Colossians   (Col.  iv.  7).     These  two  epistles  resemble  one  an- 
other closely,  and  we  can  hardly  doubt  that  Tychicus  conveyed 
them  both  from  Eome  towards  the  end  of  the  year  63,  taking 
with  him  at  the  same  time  the  short  letter  to  Philemon,  a 
Christian  living  at  Colossae. 

The  authenticity  of  this  epistle  is  beyond  question,  for  in 
support  of  it  we  have  the  evidence  of  the  Fragm.  Mur.,  Irenaeus, 
Origen,  Tertullian  and  Clement  of  Alexandria,  all  of  whom 
know  it  only  as  addressed  to  Ephesus.  Even  if  the  words 
eV  'E<£eVft>  in  v.  1  are  missing  in  the  manuscripts  they  un- 
doubtedly occur  in  the  title. 


422    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 
42.  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  PHILIPPIANS 

(4  chapters) 

1.  Philippi  in  Macedonia  was  the  first  city  on  European  soil 
in  which  Saint  Paul  preached  the  gospel.    It  was  formerly  only 
a  village  known  as  Krenides,1  but  was  enlarged  and  fortified 
by  Philip  II  of  Macedonia,  and  thenceforth  bore  his  name.     A 
Eoman  colony  was  established  there  in  42  B.  c.,  and  the  in- 
habitants enjoyed  immunity  from  taxation  and  the  privileges 
of   Eoman   citizenship.     At  the  present  time  a  little  village 
called  Filiba  stands  on  the  ruins  of  the  former  city.     Saint 
Paul  visited   Philippi  on  his   second  missionary  journey  and 
founded  a  Christian  church  there.     He  returned  thither  on  his 
third  journey   (Acts  xx.  6).     The  faithful  in  this  town  were 
particularly  loyal  to  their  teacher,   and  were  more   steadfast 
than  many  others,  both  in  faith  and  morals.     This  is  plain 
from  the  epistle  addressed  to  them  by  Saint  Paul,  which  re- 
veals the  existence  of  a  very  close  bond  between  him  and  them, 
and  contains  almost  no  rebukes,  nor  any  suggestion  of  wrong- 
doing on  their  part. 

2.  Motive.    The  Philippians  had  heard  that  Saint  Paul  was 
in    prison,    so    with    loving    anxiety    they    made    a    collection 
of  money,  and  sent  the  proceeds  by  one  of  the  chief  men  in 
the  community,  by  name  Epaphroditus  ('ETra^poStro?),  to  Saint 
Paul    (iv.    18).      The   apostle  gave   the   messenger   the   letter 
that  we  possess  to  carry  back  with  him. 

3.  Contents.     Expression  of  gratitude  and  warning. 

Chapter  i.  Joy  at  the  proof  of  the  Philippians'  loyalty  to  the  gospel. 
He  tells  them  how  he  fares  in  his  imprisonment;  he  is  willing  either  to 
live  or  to  die.  ii.  He  recommends  them  to  be  subject  to  one  another  ac- 
cording to  the  example  of  Christ,  iii.  He  warns  them  against  Judaizing 
teachers,  iv.  He  thanks  them  for  their  affectionate  offering  that  he  has 
received. 

4.  Time  and  Place.     Saint  Paul   speaks  of  his  bonds    (i. 
7,  13),  so  the  epistle  was  written  in  prison,  but  on  which  oc- 

1  i.  e.  springs,  from  the  number  of  springs  and  watercourses  in  the 
neighborhood 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  423 

casion?  He  refers  to  his  recognition  in  the  Praetorium 
(i.  13),  the  headquarters  of  the  imperial  bodyguard,  and  he 
sends  greetings  from  persons  attached  to  the  emperor's  house- 
hold (iv.  22).  These  are  plain  indications  that  he  was  in 
prison  in  Eome.  We  have  three  other  epistles  belonging  to 
the  same  period,  viz.  those  to  the  Ephesians,  Colossians  and 
Philemon.  In  all  he  expresses  the  hope  of  being  set  at  lib- 
erty, so  they  were  written  during  his  first  imprisonment;  but 
whereas  in  the  epistle  to  Philemon  (verse  22)  he  orders  a  lodg- 
ing to  be  prepared  for  himself,  he  writes  here  less  confidently 
(i.  20,  ii.  17).  This  epistle  therefore  is  probably  earlier  than 
the  other  three,  and  may  have  been  written  in  the  year  62. 

It  is  almost  universally  acknowledged  to  be  authentic.  In  his  epistle 
to  the  Philippians  (iii.  5,  9)  Saint  Polycarp  refers  to  this  work  of  the 
apostles. 

43.   THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  COLOSSIANS 
(4  chapters) 

1.  Colossce   (or  Kolassai)   was  a  town  in  Phrygia,  on  the 
Lycus,    about   forty   hours'    journey    inland    and   eastward    of 
Ephesus.     It  has  perished  under  Turkish  rule,  and  now  there 
is  only  a  village,  called  Konon  or  Chonas,  in  the  neighborhood. 

2.  Motive.    The  Christian  church  at  Colossse  was  not  founded 
by  Saint  Paul  himself   (i.  4,  ii.  1),  but  it  is  not  improbable 
that  one  of  his  disciples  preached  the  gospel  here  during  the 
apostle's  long  sojourn  in  Ephesus.     The  chief  teacher  of  the 
Colossians,  Epaphras   ('ETra^/oa?),  visited  Saint  Paul  when  a 
prisoner  in  Eome,  and  took  him  news  of  the  condition  of  that 
and  the  neighboring  churches   (i.  7,  iv.  12).     In  consequence 
of  this,  Epaphras  himself  was  imprisoned  (Philemon  23).    The 
tidings   that   he   brought    included   the   fact   that   there  were 
dangers  threatening  the  faith   (ii.  4,  8) ;    false  teachers  with 
gnostic  tendencies  were  trying  to  lead  the  Christians  astray, 
partly   into   Judaism   and   partly   into  heathenism,   and  were 
spreading  a  false  doctrine  about  angels.     Saint  Paul  wrote  this 
epistle  with  reference  to  these  matters,  and  as  Epaphras  was 
in  prison,  he  sent  it  by  Tychicus  (iv.  7),  probably  at  the  same 


424    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

time  as  the  epistles  to  the  Ephesians  and  Philemon,  in  the 
year  63. 

3.  Contents.  Of  the  four  chapters,  the  first  two  contain 
instructions,  the  last  two  admonitions. 

i.  The  blessings  of  Christianity,  far  surpassing  all  the  wisdom  of 
Jews  and  Greeks,  ii.  Suffer  not  yourselves  to  be  led  astray  by  the 
words  of  philosophers  and  Rabbis.  The  worship  of  angels  and  a  perverse 
use  of  mortification  cannot  take  the  place  of  Christianity,  iii.  Sanctify 
yourselves  by  purity  of  life,  lay  aside  the  old  man  more  and  more,  and 
put  on  the  new,  by  becoming  like  unto  Christ,  iv.  Tychicus  and  Onesi- 
mus  will  give  you  further  news.  Greetings. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  letter,  Saint  Paul  orders  it  to  be  read  in 
Laodicea,  and  that  which  he  sent  to  that  city  to  be  read  also  at  Colossse 
(iv.  16).  We  know  nothing  of  any  epistle  at  Laodicea;  probably  that 
to  the  Ephesians  is  meant,  of  which  Marcion  asserted  that  it  was  in- 
tended for  Laodicea.  (Harnack,  AltchristL  Lit.,  p.  4,  suggests  that  it 
was  the  epistle  to  the  Ephesians.)  These  two  epistles  are  very  much 
alike,  as  they  were  both  written  with  a  view  to  opposing  the  rise  of 
gnosticism,  and  to  stating  the  true  doctrines  of  Christianity. 

The  authenticity  of  the  epistle  is  vouched  for  by  Ignatius  (Eph.  x.), 
Clement  of  Rome  (I  Cor.  xlix.),  Polycarp  (Phil.  v.  and  xi.),  but  against 
it  may  be  urged  that  gnosticism  could  not  have  appeared  at  so  early  a 
date.  If,  however,  soon  after  100  A.  D.  Basilides  and  Valentinus  came 
forward  with  comprehensive  gnostic  systems,  the  beginning  of  the 
heresy  must  have  existed  long  before.  In  his  first  epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians, i.  18;  ii.  6,  etc.;  viii.  1;  xii.  8,  Saint  Paul  gives  warnings  against 
what  is  assumed  to  be  wisdom,  very  much  as  he  does  in  the  epistle  to  the 
Colossians. 


44.   FIRST  EPISTLE  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS 

(5  chapters) 

1.  Thessalonica  (©einraAW/n?),  the  largest  city  in  Mace- 
donia, lying  southwest  of  Philippi  on  the  Sinus  Thermaicus, 
was  a  flourishing  commercial  town.  It  is  now  called  Salonik, 
and  is,  next  to  Constantinople,  the  most  important  place  in 
Turkey  in  Europe.  Of  the  seventy  thousand  inhabitants  a  third 
are  Jews,  and  in  ancient  times  there  were  many  Jews  here. 
Saint  Paul  addressed  them  first,  when,  on  his  second  mis- 
sionary journey,  he  came  hither  from  Philippi  with  Silas  and 
Timothy,  to  bring  tidings  of  the  Messias.  They  did  not  long 
listen  to  him  with  patience,  but  soon  showed  their  hostility, 
although  they  were  unable  to  hinder  the  growth  of  a  church 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  425 

consisting  chiefly  of  Gentile  Christians.  Being  forced  to  take 
flight,  Saint  Paul  sent  Timothy,  probably  from  Berea,  to  Thes- 
salonica  to  look  after  the  new  converts  and  then  to  bring  him 
news  of  them  to  Achaia.  Timothy  rejoined  Saint  Paul  at 
Corinth,  and  gave  him  a  report  of  the  condition  of  the  newly 
founded  community. 

2.  Motive  of  the  Epistle.     The  church  in  Thessalonica  was 
suffering  in  consequence  of  not  having  received  sufficient  in- 
struction  (iii.  10).     The  converts  were  firm  in  the  faith,  but 
morally    they    were    not    much    changed,    and    their    careless, 
heathenish  mode  of  life  had  not  been  discarded.    Several  deaths, 
too,  had  occurred,   in  consequence  of  which  many  Christians 
abandoned  themselves  to  discouragement,  being  badly  instructed 
regarding  the  future  life  and  the  resurrection.    These  facts  led 
Saint  Paul  to  write  them  an  epistle. 

3.  Contents.     Saint  Paul  seeks  to  strengthen  his  converts 
in  the  gospel;    he  warns  them  against  the  heathen  vices  of 
fornication,  dishonesty,  hard-heartedness  and  indolence,  and  in- 
structs them  on  the  second  coming  of  Christ. 

i.  To  my  joy  you  have  become  Christians,  ii.  Remember  my  sojourn 
amongst  you.  With  the  greatest  earnestness  I  preached  salvation  to 
you,  and  you  asccepted  it  with  zeal.  iii.  Timothy,  whom  I  sent  to  you, 
has  brought  me  good  news  of  you.  iv.  Practice  the  virtues  of  Christians ; 
be  moral,  love  your  neighbors,  and  be  diligent  at  your  work.  With  re- 
gard to  those  who  have  passed  away,  be  without  anxiety;  they  will  rise 
again  at  Christ's  second  coming,  v.  The  time  of  the  judgment  is  un- 
certain, the  Lord  will  come  like  a  thief  in  the  night. 

4.  Time  and  Place.    This  epistle  is  the  earliest  of  all  Saint 
Paul's  writings  that  have  come  down  to  us.     It  was  written 
at  Corinth  in  the  year  53. 


45.    SECOND  EPISTLE  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS 

(3  chapters) 

1.  Motive.  After  a  short  time  further  news  of  the  church 
at  Thessalonica  reached  Saint  Paul.  His  epistle  had  made  a 
deep  impression  and  had  had  a  good  result;  to  some  extent 
it  had  served  to  soothe  men's  minds,  but  as  he  had  spoken  of 


426    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE   BIBLE 

the  second  coming  of  Christ  and  the  end  of  the  world,  and 
had  declared  the  time  of  the  judgment  to  be  uncertain,  the 
Thessalonians  fancied  that  the  end  of  all  things  was  imminent, 
and  they  were  giving  themselves  up  to  the  greatest  alarm. 
Their  excitement  had  been  aggravated  by  a  forged  letter  os- 
tensibly written  by  Saint  Paul.  Some,  probably  of  the  lower 
classes,  were  refusing  to  work  and  living  in  idleness,  allowing 
themselves  to  be  supported  by  the  charity  of  their  fellow 
Christians.  On  receipt  of  this  news,  Saint  Paul  sent  a  second 
epistle  to  Thessalonica. 

2.  Contents.     Admonition  to  lead  the  life  of  honest  Chris- 
tians.     Completion   of   his  instruction  regarding  the   end  of 
the  world  and  the  Last  Judgment. 

i.  At  the  last  day  God  will  reward  your  zeal  for  the  faith,  ii.  But 
we  must  not  expect  the  end  of  the  world  immediately;  there  must  first 
be  a  great  falling  away  on  the  part  of  Christians  (Matt.  xxiv.  23),  and 
the  man  of  sin  (Antichrist,  I  John  ii.  18;  Acts  xx.  7)  will  appear  and 
rule  with  the  utmost  arrogance.  Then,  when  wickedness  has  reached 
its  climax,  Christ  will  come  and  put  a  speedy  end  to  it.  iii.  The  apostle 
warns  the  people  against  idleness,  and  bids  them  break  off  all  inter- 
course with  those  who  deliberately  live  on  alms.  Every  man  should  try 
to  support  himself  by  his  own  work.  On  the  other  hand,  Saint  Paul 
urges  them  not  to  desist  from  helping  the  really  poor. 

3.  Time  and  Place.     Like  the  first  epistle,  the  second  was 
writen  at  Corinth,  about  the  year  54. 

We  possess  very  ancient  testimony  vouching  for  the  authenticity  of 
both  epistles.  The  Muratorian  Fragment,  and  even  Marcion,  set  them 
in  the  Canon.  Irenseus  knew  both  (  Adv.  Hcer.,  V,  vi.  1 ;  III,  vii.  2),  and  so 
did  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  IV,  12;  V,  3).  Justin  Martyr  speaks 
of  the  "  Man  of  apostasy,  who  speaketh  terrible  things  against  the  Most 
High"  (c.  Tryph.,  32,  110,  cf.  II  Thess.,  ii.  3,  4).  It  is  only  in  modern 
times  that  the  authenticity  of  the  first  epistle  has  been  questioned, 
chiefly  because  of  its  resemblance  to  the  epistles  to  the  Corinthians,  as 
if  the  apostle  might  not  have  addressed  two  churches  in  a  similar 
fashion.  The  authenticity  of  the  second  epistle  is  challenged  because  it 
contains  the  doctrine  of  Antichrist,  which  resembles  the  Apocalypse,  and 
the  arbitrary  assumption  is  made  that  this  epistle  therefore  was  written 
after  the  time  of  Saint  Paul. 


THE   BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT     427 

PASTORAL   EPISTLES 

For  about  a  century  this  name  has  been  given  to  three 
epistles;  the  first  and  second  to  Timothy  and  that  addressed 
to  Titus.  They  resemble  one  another  in  motive  and  contents, 
and  all  contain  instructions  for  fulfilling  the  duties  of  a 
bishop.  They  have  always  been  classed  together. 

There  is  very  ancient  evidence  for  the  authenticity  of  these  three 
epistles.  They  occur  in  the  Itala  and  Peshitto  and  in  the  Muratorian 
Canon.  Polycarp  (Ad  Phil.,  c.  4  and  9)  clearly  quotes  I  Tim.  vi.  7  and 
10;  II  Tim.  iv.  9;  Irenaeus  (Adv.  Hwr.,  Ill,  iii.  3)  refers  to  II  Tim. 
iv.  21. 

46.   THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO  TIMOTHY 

(6  chapters) 

1.  Timothy,   the   son   of   a    Gentile   father   and   a   Jewish 
mother,  was  born  at  Lystra  in  Lycaonia.     He  was  a  faithful 
disciple    and    companion    to    Saint    Paul,    who,    on    quitting 
Ephesus,  left  him  behind  in  charge  of  the  church  there.    From 
other  points  on  his  journey  Saint  Paul  continued  to  send  him 
instructions  and  admonitions  regarding  his  duties  as  bishop. 

2.  Contents,    i.-iv.,  Principles;  v.  and  vi.,  their  application. 

i.  The  reason  for  Saint  Paul's  leaving  Timothy  at  Ephesus  was  the 
appearance  of  heresy,  that  endeavored  to  substitute  a  distorted  form  of 
Judaism  for  the  gospel.  The  fundamental  principle  of  the  gospel  teach- 
ing, which  must  constantly  be  emphasized,  is  that  Christ  came  to  save 
sinners,  ii.  For  the  further  spreading  of  the  gospel,  prayer  is  needed  as 
well  as  preaching,  iii.  Moreover,  the  right  men  must  be  chosen  as 
clergy;  and  the  qualities  are  stated  which  must  chiefly  be  kept  in  view 
in  selecting  them.  iv.  Timothy  must  oppose  the  teachers  of  so-called 
wisdom,  that  is  only  a  fiction,  and  although  still  young,  he  must  be  an 
example  to  all.  v.  Instructing  and  guiding  men  of  every  rank  and  age, 
and  even  the  priests,  vi.  No  self-interest  is  to  influence  him,  but  he  is 
always  to  turn  his  thoughts  to  the  judgment  of  Christ  and  to  life 
everlasting. 

3.  It  is  difficult  to  fix  the  date  of  this  epistle,  since  it  seems 
to  fit  no  situation  in  Saint  Paul's  life,  as  far  as  we  know 
it  from  the  New  Testament.     For  this  reason  the  authenticity 
of  the  epistle  has  been  denied,  but  we  find  that  it  was  used 
by  the  earliest  Fathers;    the  oldest  translations,  viz.  the  Itala 


428    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

and  Peshitto,  contain  it,  and  it  is  included  in  every  ancient 
list  of  the  canonical  books. 

The  following  hypotheses  have  been  put  forward  regarding 
the  date  of  its  origin: 

1.  "During  his  long  residence  at  Ephesus    (56-58)    Saint 
Paul  made  a  journey  not  mentioned  by   Saint  Luke  in  the 
Acts,  and  in  the  course  of  it  wrote  this  epistle "   (Ad  Maier, 
Reithmayr).      But    the    epistle    assumes   the    existence    of    an 
already  well  organized  community,  such  as  we  cannot  believe 
was  formed  at  so  early  a  period. 

2.  "  Saint  Paul,  being  driven  away  from  Ephesus  through 
the  disturbances  caused  by  Demetrius,  traveled  to  Macedonia 
and  Achaia,  leaving  Timothy  behind,  and  it  was  from  Mace- 
donia or  Achaia  that  he  sent  him  these  written  instructions" 
(Aberle-Schanz).      But    on    that    occasion    Saint    Paul    sent 
Timothy  before  him  into  Macedonia   (Acts  xix.  22;    II  Cor. 
i.  1).     If  we  assume  that  Timothy  soon  returned,  the  peaceful 
tone  of  the  letter  does  not  agree  with  this  period;    it  is  not 
thus  that  a  man  writes  who  has  just  emerged  from  a  most 
difficult  contest,  and  knows  that  his  friend  is  in  the  midst  of 
dangers  threatening  his  life   (II  Cor.  i.  8). 

3.  The  usual  supposition  is  that  Saint  Paul,  being  released 
from  his  first  imprisonment  in  Rome  (63),  first  visited  Spain, 
and  then  made  a  journey  to  see  the  churches  in  Greece  and 
Asia;    and  it  was  then  that  he  left   Timothy   as  bishop   in 
Ephesus,  and  during  his  further  travels,  perhaps  in  the  year 
65,  wrote  this  epistle  to  him    (Kaulen,   Comely).     Old  sub- 
scriptions to  the  Epistle  give  Laodicea  in  Phrygia  as  the  place 
of   composition.     Against  this  theory  is   the  fact   that   Saint 
Paul  had  previously    (Acts  xx.   25)    told  the  Ephesians  that 
they  would  see  his  face  no  more.     We  may,  however,  limit 
these  words  to  the  majority  of  those  who  went  to  meet  him 
at  Miletus.     The  passage  in  I  Timothy  iv.  12,  "Let  no  man 
despise  thy  youth,"  causes  less  difficulty,  for  if  Timothy  was 
about  twenty  when  he  was  converted  in  51  or  thereabouts,  in 
the  year  65  he  would  certainly  still  be  very  young  to  hold 
the  office  of  a  bishop. 


THE   BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT     429 
47.   THE  SECOND  EPISTLE  TO  TIMOTHY 

(4  chapters) 

1.  Time  and  Place.     Saint  Paul  wrote  this  epistle  when 
he  was  imprisoned  in  Rome  for  preaching  the  gospel  (i.  8,  17; 
iv.  16,  etc).     He  had  but  little  hope  of  regaining  his  freedom 
and  was  looking  forward  to  a  speedy  death.     As  he  expresses 
himself    quite    otherwise   in    the    epistles    to    the   Philippians, 
Ephesians,  Colossians  and  Philemon,  which  he  also  wrote  when 
a  prisoner  in  Eome,  as  he  even  orders  a  lodging  to  be  pre- 
pared for  himself  in  Colossae,  we  must  regard  this  epistle  as 
belonging  to  a  later  date,  and  as  written  during  his  second 
imprisonment  in  Rome,  when  he  had  no  prospect  of  release, 
for  it  ended  with  his  execution.    The  second  epistle  to  Timothy 
was  therefore  written  in  Rome  in  66  or  67  A.  D. 

2.  Contents.     Saint   Paul  asks   Timothy   to   come  to   him. 
He  lays  down  rules  for  his  guidance  in  his  office,  particularly 
with  regard  to  heretics.     Personal  information. 

i.  How  gladly  would  I  again  see  my  beloved  Timothy!  But  it  is 
possible  that  you  will  not  find  me  alive;  so  receive  now  my  instructions 
and  last  exhortations.  Remember  the  grace  of  your  consecration,  and 
discharge  manfully  and  steadfastly  the  duties  of  a  good  shepherd.  Be 
not  ashamed  of  your  master,  though  he  is  a  prisoner,  but  take  him  as  an 
example.  Work  fearlessly  for  the  gospel,  and  strive  to  train  up  others 
as  teachers  of  it.  ii.,  iii.  Do  not  dispute  with  heretics.  The  appearance 
of  wicked  men  does  not  injure  the  sanctity  of  the  Church.  Win  over  the 
wavering  by  gentleness  and  patience.  Prepare  for  suffering.  Let  it  cost 
what  it  may,  you  must  hold  fast  to  tradition  and  to  Holy  Scripture. 
iv.  Be  zealous.  You  will  have  to  take  my  place,  as  my  course  is  nearly 
ended.  I  am  abandoned  by  most  of  my  friends,  and  only  Luke  is  with 
me.  Bring  me  the  cloak  that  I  left  behind  at  Troas,  and  my  books,  and 
come  with  Mark  to  join  me.  Greetings  to  my  friends  in  Ephesus. 


48.   THE  EPISTLE  TO  TITUS 

(3  chapters) 

1.  Titus.  Saint  Paul's  disciple  and  companion  was  left  by 
him  on  the  island  of  Crete  to  arrange  the  still  confused  cir- 
cumstances of  the  Christian  communities  there,  and  especially 


430    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

to  appoint  rulers  of  the  churches.     From  a  distance  the  apostle 
gave  him  further  instructions  for  his  guidance. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  to  ascertain  when  Titus  came  into  contact  with 
Saint  Paul.  According  to  the  Menologium  of  the  Emperor  Basilius 
(August  25,  Migne,  P.  Or.,  117,  p.  604,  etc.),  Titus  was  a  native  of 
Crete,  and  went  to  Jerusalem  as  a  young  man.  Whilst  there,  he  saw 
our  Lord  and  accepted  the  faith.  If  this  be  true,  he  may  have  become 
acquainted  with  Saint  Paul  soon  after  the  latter 's  conversion. 

2.  Contents.     A  statement  of  what  Titus  has  to  do,  and 
after  he  has  accomplished  his  task  he  is  to  return  to  Saint 
Paul. 

i.  His  chief  business  is  to  select  suitable  men  to  act  as  elders,  i.  e.  as 
priests  and  bishops.  They  must  possess  a  good  reputation,  virtues  and 
knowledge,  and  be  capable  of  defending  the  doctrines  of  Christianity. 
The  Cretans  are  acknowledged  to  be  very  difficult  people  to  deal  with, 
and  false  teachers  with  Judaizing  tendencies  have  already  found  a 
footing  amongst  them.  Zeal  and  prudence  are  therefore  particularly 
necessary,  ii.  Titus  is  to  display  these  qualities  towards  all  classes,— 
men,  women  and  servants,  —  and  insist  upon  the  works  of  the  faith,  iii. 
False  teachers  are  to  be  left  alone,  after  a  few  rebukes  have  been  given 
them.  Saint  Paul  intends  to  send  some  one  to  Crete  as  a  substitute  for 
Titus  (iii.  12),  that  he  may  be  able  to  join  him  at  Nicopolis,  where  he 
intends  to  pass  the  winter.  (Whether  this  town  is  Nicopolis  in  Cilicia 
or  Nicopolis  in  Epirus,  over  against  Actium,  is  not  clear;  the  former 
was  a  long  way  from  Saint  Paul's  earlier  sphere  of  activity,  but  he 
might  pass  the  latter  on  his  way  from  Macedonia  and  Achaia  through 
Illyricum  (cf.  Rom.  xv.  19)  back  to  Rome.  Hence  we  should  probably 
understand  Nicopolis  in  Epirus). 

3.  Date.     Nothing  is  told  us  in  the  Acts  of  Saint  Paul's 
visit  to   Crete   and  his   work  there.      Some   suppose   that  faq 
founded  the  church  in  Crete  before  his  long  sojourn  in  Ephe- 
sus,  perhaps  on  his  way  thither;    or  else  he  interrupted  his 
work  in  Ephesus  to  go  with  Titus  to  Crete,  and  left  his  dis- 
ciple there.    The  usual  theory  is  that  it  was  only  on  his  fourth 
missionary  journey,  after  his  visit  to  Spain,  that  Saint  Paul 
preached  the  gospel  in  Crete  and  left  Titus  there,  sending  him 
the  letter  of  instructions  from  some  point  farther  on  his  jour- 
ney.    The  circumstances  are  therefore  approximately  the  same 
as  those  connected  with  the  first  epistle  to  Timothy,  and  the 
date  of  composition  may  be  taken  as  65  or  66.     The  epistle 
was  perhaps  written  at  Corinth. 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  431 

Whilst  he  was  on  his  last  missionary  journey  and  after  it  was  over, 
Saint  Paul  knew  well  that  his  work  was  drawing  to  its  close ;  in  II  Tim. 
iv.  6  he  speaks  plainly  of  the  end  of  his  life.  It  was  therefore  very 
natural  that  he  felt  bound  to  give  his  friends  and  disciples,  who  were 
to  take  his  place,  rules  for  the  maintenance  and  propagation  of  true 
Christianity. 

49.    THE  EPISTLE  TO  PHILEMON 
(25  verses) 

This  short  letter  is  addressed  to  a  prominent  Gentile  Christian 
at  Colossae,  whom  Saint  Paul  had  converted.  A  slave,  named 
Onesimus,  had  run  away  from  him,  and,  learning  to  know 
Saint  Paul,  who  was  then  in  prison  in  Eome,  was  brought 
by  him  to  the  Christian  faith.  The  apostle  induced  him  to 
return  to  his  master,  and  he  traveled  with  Tychicus  (Col.  iv. 
7-9),  who  was  conveying  the  epistles  to  the  Ephesians  and 
Colossians.  Saint  Paul  gave  Onesimus  at  the  same  time  a 
letter  recommending  him  to  his  master.  This  epistle  there- 
fore, like  those  mentioned  above,  was  written  in  the  year  63. 

Contents.    Kecommendation  of  Onesimus. 

Philemon  is  requested  to  receive  Onesimus  kindly,  for  he  has  now  be- 
come a  brother,  and  to  forgive  him.  At  the  same  time  Saint  Paul  asks 
Philemon  to  prepare  him  a  lodging,  for  he  hopes  soon  to  come  to  Colos- 
sae.  The  oldest  authorities  vouch  for  the  authenticity  of  this  epistle; 
Itala,  Peshitto,  Tertullian  (Adv.  Marcion,  V,  21),  Clement  of  Alex- 
dria,  Fragm.  Mur.,  Eusebius  and  others. 


50.   THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  HEBEEWS 
(13  chapters) 

1.    Contents.     The  advantages  of  Christianity  over  Judaism. 

The  writer,  without  the  customary  greeting  by  way  of  introduction, 
begins  at  once  with  his  expositio:  i.-iii.  In  Jesus  Christ  the  fulfillment 
of  all  the  Old  Testament  prophecies  has  taken  place.  The  covenant  in- 
stituted by  Him  is  far  better  than  that  of  Moses,  for  Christ  is  the  Son, 
Moses  only  the  servant  of  God.  iv.  Christ  offers  peace  and  everlasting 
rest,  which  no  one  can  despise  save  at  the  cost  of  being  rejected,  as  was 
the  first  generation  of  Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  v.,  vi.,  vii.  Christ  is 
the  true  high  priest,  appointed  by  God,  of  the  order  of  Melchisedech, 
and,  having  been  exalted  into  Heaven,  He  stands  far  above  the  Levitical 
priesthood,  viii.,  ix.  The  place  also  of  worship  (Heaven)  and  the  sacri- 


432    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

fice  of  Christ  stand  far  higher  than  the  old  form  of  worship  in  the 
earthly  sanctuary,  x.  Exhortation  to  perseverance,  xi.  Reference  to 
former  models  of  faith:  Abel,  Henoch^  Noe,  Abraham,  Moses,  xii., 
xiii.  Exhortation  to  concord  and  sanctity.  Request  for  a  friendly  recep- 
tion of  the  epistle.  Greetings. 

2.  Readers.    The  contents  show  that  the  Hebrews  addressed 
in  this  epistle  were  not  Jews,  but  Jewish  Christians  in  Pales- 
tine, and  particularly  in  Jerusalem,  for  they  loved  the  Mosaic 
ritual  and  saw  it  still  in  use. 

3.  Canonicity.    In  ancient  times  opinions  were  divided  with 
regard  to  this  epistle.    Whilst  some  valued  it  very  highly,  others 
either  rejected  it  altogether  or  denied  that  it  was  the  work 
of  Saint  Paul.    It  is  remarkably  unlike  his  other  epistles;   the 
thoughts   show  a  resemblance,   but  the  language   is   different. 
One  result  of  the  peculiarities  of  this  epistle  was  that  it  was 
not  everywhere  admitted  for  use  in  the  churches,  and  it  was 
only  in  the  East  that  it  was  always  and  everywhere  regarded 
as  canonical.     We  can  see  this  from  Origen,   Cyril  of  Jeru- 
salem and  the  Peshitto.     In  the  West  the  Fathers  before  the 
fourth  century  scarcely  quote  it  at  all.     Saint  Jerome,  Saint 
Ambrose  and  Saint  Augustine  were  the  first  who  made  use  of 
it,   relying  upon   its   reputation  in  the   East,   like  the   other 
canonical  books.     The  Councils  of  Hippo  (393)  and  Carthage 
(397)  included  it  in  the  Canon,  as  did  Innocent  I  (405).    The 
long-continued  opposition  offered  to  this  book  in  the  West  may 
be  explained  in  connection  with  the  Montanists  and  Novatians, 
who  asserted  that  there  was  no  hope  of  pardon  for  a  Christian 
who  apostatized,  —  a  view  that  seemed  to  find  some  support  in 
Hebrews  vi.  4  and  x.  26. 

4.  The   book   was   regarded    with    suspicion    also,    because 
the  authorship  of  it  is  not  quite  certain,  even  at  the  present 
day.     The  language  x  is  not  that  of  Saint  Paul,  although  the 
subject  matter  is  unmistakably  his;    and  as  this  is  the  case 

1  The  author  writes  pure,  classical  Greek,  and  shows  great  skill  in 
expression,  but  he  makes  use  ef  a  peculiar  form  of  speech  which  occurs 
nowhere  else  in  the  New  Testament,  and  especially  not  in  Saint  Paul's 
epistles.  As  early  a  writer  as  Eusebius  (Hist.  EccL,  III,  38)  drew  at- 
tention to  the  likeness  between  this  epistle  and  Saint  Clement's  first 
epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 


THE   BOOKS    OF    THE    NEW   TESTAMENT     433 

it  is  pretty  generally  assumed1  that  Saint  Paul  employed  one 
of  his  fellow  workers  to  write  it.  Some  ascribe  the  composi- 
tion to  Barnabas,  others  to  Luke,  some  few  to  Apollos,  but  most 
to  Clement  of  Rome.  The  statements  of  ancient  writers  pre- 
ponderate in  favor  of  Clement.2  (Reithmayr,  Einl.,  p.  681; 
Comely,  Comp.,  571).  It  may  be  that  Saint  Paul  intentionally 
put  himself  somewhat  in  the  background,  because  many  of  the 
Jewish  Christians  disliked  him. 

5.  Time  and  Place.  According  to  xiii.  24  the  epistle  was 
written  in  Italy,  probably  in  Rome.3  It  may  have  been  com- 
posed during  Saint  Paul's  first  imprisonment,  but  as  it  con- 
tains no  allusion  to  his  being  in  captivity,  it  is  more  likely 
that  it  was  written  after  his  release,  about  the  year  63  or  64. 
At  this  time  the  Christians  in  the  Holy  Land  were  in  great 
danger  of  relapsing  into  Judaism,  since  they  had  lost  their 
chief  support,  the  Apostle  Saint  James  the  Less,  in  the 
year  62.* 

1  B.  Heigl,  relying  on  the  tradition  of  the  East,  maintains  the  theory 
that  Saint  Paul  himself  wrote  the  epistle.  It  should  be  noticed  that 
Saint  Jerome  (Catal.  Scr.  Eccl.)  believed  that  Saint  Paul  wrote  it  in 
Hebrew,  and  that  it  was  translated  into  Greek  by  Barnabas  or  Luke  or 
Clement.  It  would  be  remarkable,  however,  if  the  Hebrew  original  had 
vanished  so  that  no  trace  of  it  remained. 

3  That  Clement  knew  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  at  least  probable. 
Irenaeus  (Adv.  Hcer.,  Ill,  iii.  3)  says  that  he  had  intercourse  with  the 
apostles.  According  to  Origen  (Comm.  in  Jo.,  VI,  36)  and  Eusebius  (Hist. 
EccL,  III,  15),  he  is  identical  with  the  Clement  whom  Saint  Paul  calls 
his  fellow  worker  ( Phil.  iv.  3 ) .  We  do  not  know  whether  he  was  a  Jew 
or  a  Gentile;  the  character  of  his  first  (authentic)  epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians leads  us  to  infer  that  he  was  a  convert  from  Judaism.  He  prob- 
ably became  Pope  under  Domitian  (81-96). 

3  "  Italy  "  includes  Rome  and  does  not  exclude  it.  Caution  may  have 
been  necessary  owing  to  persecutions. 

*  It  is  remarkable  that  this  revered  head  of  the  Church  is  not  men- 
tioned in  the  epistle,  but  the  words  (xiii.  7)  "Remember  your  prelates 
who  have  spoken  the  word  of  God  to  you;  whose  faith  follow,  consider- 
ing the  end  of  their  conversation,"  are  probably  a  reference  to  the  two 
apostles  named  James,  both  of  whom  died  as  martyrs  for  the  faith  in 
Jerusalem. 


434    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY  OP  THE  BIBLE 

CATHOLIC   EPISTLES 

51.  THESE  EPISTLES  IN  GENERAL;    THEIR  NAME 

From  the  very  earliest  times  this  name  has  been  given  to 
seven  epistles  written  by  apostles,  viz.,  three  by  Saint  John, 
two  by  Saint  Peter,  one  by  Saint  James  the  Less  and  one  by 
Saint  Jude  Thaddeus.  It  is  not  quite  clear  why  these  seven 
epistles  were  called  Catholic. 

First  Theory:  We  have  here  the  apostles  collectively,  not 
merely  one  apostle,  Saint  Paul,  as  in  the  other  fourteen 
epistles.  But  against  this  theory  is  the  fact  that  here  too  only 
a  small  proportion  of  the  apostles  (four  out  of  twelve)  are 
concerned. 

Second  Theory:  These  epistles  are  not,  like  those  of  Saint 
Paul,  addressed  to  single  churches  or  to  individuals*  but  to 
all  men,  or  at  least  to  many.  But  against  this  is  the  fact  that 
the  epistles  to  the  Galatians,  Ephesians  and  Colossians  are  also 
intended  for  several  churches,  but  are  not  on  that  account 
called  Catholic. 

Correct  Theory:  Catholic  means  here  "recognized  by  the 
universal  Church."  This  is  the  explanation  given  by  Eusebius 
(Hist.  EccL,  III,  3),  who  says:  "The  first  epistle  of  Peter  is 
universally  recognized,  but  his  acta,  his  gospel,  his  preaching 
and  his  apocalypse  are  not  among  the  Catholic  books."  The 
expression  is  not  quite  synonymous  with  oiioKoyovpeva,  —  the 
universal  Church  recognized  these  epistles  as  apostolic,  but  the 
apostolicity  of  some  was  opposed  by  a  few  churches. 


52.   THE  EPISTLE  OP  SAINT  JAMES 

(5  chapters) 

1.  The  Writer  of  this  epistle  is  the  Apostle  Saint  James 
the  Younger  or  Less,  son  of  Alpheus,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem, 
and  brother  (i.  e.  near  relative)  of  our  Lord.  Saint  James  the 
Elder  or  Great,  son  of  Zebedee,  brother  of  John,  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom in  42  A.  D.,  at  which  time  this  epistle  certainly  did  not 


THE  BOOKS  OP  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  435 

exist,    as    it    contains    an    allusion    to    the    Epistle    to    the 
Romans.1 

2.  Readers.    The  epistle  is  addressed  to  the  twelve  tribes  of 
Jews  which  were  scattered  abroad;   that  is  to  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tians outside  Palestine.     It  behooved  the  Bishop  of  Jerusalem, 
as  the  ecclesiastical  head  of  the  Holy  Land,  to  address  them. 

3.  Motive.     It  is  plain  from  the  epistle  itself  that  some 
misunderstanding  about  Christian  liberty  had  crept  in  amongst 
the  Jewish   Christians.     Many  interpreted  the  freedom  from 
the  Mosaic  law,  dating  from  the  time  of  Christ,  to  mean  that 
in  order  to  attain  to  salvation  it  was  enough  to  believe  in 
Him,  and  that  no  good  works  need  be  done.     They  especially 
regarded  themselves  as  released  from  all  obligation  of  charity 
towards  their  neighbors.     Reports  of  these  things  could  easily 
be  carried  from  all  countries  to  Jerusalem,  as  every  year  many 
pilgrims  went  to  Palestine  to  celebrate  the  festivals,  and  by 
their    agency    the    epistle    could    also    be    distributed    in    all 
directions. 

4.  Contents.      Encouragement    to    have    patience    in    trials 
affecting  the  faith.     Faith  alone  is  not  enough  to  secure  sal- 
vation;   it  is  necessary  also  to  carry  Christian  teaching  into 
practice,  particularly  active  love  of  one's  neighbor. 

i.  James,  the  servant  of  God  and  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  to  the 
twelve  tribes  in  the  diaspora,  i.  e.  scattered  outside  Palestine.  There 
are  many  dangers  and  temptations,  because  the  kingdom  of  God  does 
not  appear  with  the  anticipated  outward  magnificence.  Have  patience 
and  be  not  foolish.  Pray  to  God  for  a  right  understanding.  Let  the 
poor  man  rejoice  in  his  dignity  as  a  Christian,  let  the  rich  humble  him- 
self as  a  follower  of  Christ.  To  boast  of  riches  is  wrong,  because  they 
so  soon  pass  away.  We  ought  always  to  become  more  perfect,  and  not 


1  In  the  New  Testament  (Matt.  xiii.  55;  Mark  vi.  3;  Gal.  i.  19) 
James  the  brother  of  the  Lord  is  mentioned.  Is  he  to  be  identified  with 
one  of  the  above-named  or  not?  Some  commentators,  both  ancient  and 
modern,  believe  that  James,  the  brother  of  the  Lord,  was  a  third  person, 
not  mentioned  in  the  lists  of  the  apostles,  and  therefore  not  an  apostle, 
and  it  is  to  him  that  they  ascribe  this  epistle.  But  James,  the  brother 
of  the  Lord,  is  certainly  identical  with  James,  son  of  Alpheus,  for  (1) 
Saint  Paul  says  in  Gal.  i.  19,  that  when  he  was  in  Jerusalem  he  saw 
none  of  the  apostles  save  James,  brother  of  the  Lord;  (2)  the  extremely 
ancient  distinction  between  Jacobus  maior  and  Jacobus  minor  indicates 
that  tradition  knew  of  only  two  men  of  the  name. 


436    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

only  hear  Christianity  preached,  but  also  practice  the  works  of  faith, 
ii.  In  Christianity  there  is  no  respect  of  persons ;  rich  and  poor  are  alike. 
The  chief  duty  is  practical  love  of  one's  neighbor,  for  as  in  the  case 
of  Abraham  sacrifice  must  be  added  to  faith,  iii.  Particularly  to  be 
avoided  are  the  sins  of  the  tongue,  which  injure  charity  towards  one's 
neighbor,  iv.  The  correction  of  visible  faults  does  not  avail  much,  unless 
the  bad  interior  disposition  is  combated  and  cured.  Beware  of  desiring 
the  fleeting  goods  of  this  world,  of  despising  one's  neighbor  and  of  esteem- 
ing oneself  too  highly,  v.  Woe  to  the  rich  who  oppress  the  poor!  blessed 
are  those  who  continue  patient  in  suffering!  Beware  of  unnecessary 
oaths;  never  lose  confidence  in  God  either  in  prosperity  or  adversity; 
receive  holy  unction  in  sickness;  confess  your  sins  honestly  and  be 
zealous  in  prayer.  Seek  to  bring  those  that  are  astray  back  to  the  right 
path. 

5.  Time  and  Place.  The  epistle  was  written  in  Jerusalem, 
probably  not  earlier  than  60  A.  D.,  as  it  contains  allusions  to 
misunderstood  doctrines  of  Saint  Paul  (ii.  23;  cf.  Rom.  iv.  3; 
Gal.  iii.  6),  who  did  not  extend  his  sphere  of  activity  until 
between  50  and  60,  and  whose  earliest  epistles  belong  to  that 
period. 

We  may  assume  that  Saint  James  received  news,  chiefly  from  Rome 
and  Galatia,  regarding  the  misunderstanding  of  Saint  Paul's  teaching  on 
the  works  of  the  law,  when  Saint  Paul  himself  was  in  prison  at  Csesarea, 
and  that  he  made  haste  to  correct  those  who  were  in  error. 

The  authenticity  of  this  epistle  and  its  position  in  the  Canon 
are  vouched  for  by  the  Itala  and  the  Peshitto,  and  by  many 
quotations  in  Hennas,  Clement  of  Rome,  Irenasus,  Hippoly- 
tus,  etc. 

53.   THE  Two  EPISTLES  OF  SAINT  PETER 

(5  and  3  chapters) 

1.  The  first  of  these  epistles  was  probably  written  when 
persecutions  were  in  prospect  (i.  7,  iii.  13,  etc.,  iv.  12,  etc.). 
The  faithful  are  exhorted  to  stand  firm  in  faith  and  morals, 
the  latter  particularly,  in  order  that  among  the  heathen  the 
name  of  Christian  may  cease  to  be  synonymous  with  wrong- 
doer (ii.  12).  They  are  urged  to  pay  the  greatest  possible 
obedience  to  authority  (ii.  13),  to  practice  brotherly  love, 
peaceableness  and  patience  in  suffering. 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  437 

i.  Stand  fast  in  the  faith.  Christ  has  come,  and  through  Him  we 
attain  to  everlasting  salvation,  ii.  and  iii.  In  union  with  Christ  lead  a 
holy  life;  be  subject  also  to  authority,  so  that  no  one  may  be  able  to 
reproach  you  with  anything,  iv.  Beware  against  heathen  vices,  be  full  of 
brotherly  love,  and  despair  not  in  affliction  and  persecution,  v.  The 
rulers  of  the  Church  must  be  an  example  to  all,  and  every  Christian 
should  be  humble  at  heart. 

The-  second,  shorter,  letter,  which  is  remarkably  like  the  epistle 
of  Saint  Jude,  is  directed  against  certain  false  teachers,  who, 
under  a  pretense  of  Christian  liberty,  are  trying  to  spread  a 
spurious  spirituality  and  declare  all  carnal  desires  to  be  mat- 
ters of  indifference. 

1.  Great  are  the  graces  bestowed  upon  us,  but  we  must  zealously  co- 
operate with  them,  in  order  that  we  may  be  saved  through  Christ,     ii. 
Beware  of  false  teachers  who   countenance  immorality,     iii.  The  Lord 
will  come  to  judgment,  and  the  world  will  be  destroyed.     Keep  your- 
selves blameless. 

This  epistle  seems  to  have  been  written  to  introduce,  ratify 
and  recommend  Saint  Jude's  epistle  to  a  circle  of  readers  out- 
side Palestine,  who  were  in  the  same  sort  of  danger  as  those 
whom  Saint  Jude  addresses.  It  is  possible  that  it  was  sent 
round  with  Saint  Jude's  epistle.1 

2.  At  the  beginning  of  each  letter  "  Peter,  the  apostle  of 
Jesus  Christ/'  makes  himself  known  as  the  author. 

His  original  name  was  Simon;  his  father  was  John  (John  xxi.  15)  or 
Jonas  (Matt.  xvi.  17).  He  was  brought  to  our  Saviour  by  his  brother 
Andrew,  and  received  the  name  Cephas  ( =  Petrus  =  Rock )  and  the  first 
place  amongst  the  apostles.  After  our  Lord's  Ascension  he  was  at  the 
head  of  the  Apostolic  College  and  directed  the  Church  first  in  Jerusalem, 
then  in  Antioch,  and  (from  the  year  42  onwards)  in  Rome.  From  Rome 
he  revisited  the  East,  but  returned  thither  and  was  crucified  in  the 
year  67. 

3.  Readers.     Both  epistles  were  intended  for  Christian  com- 
munities in  Asia  Minor,  viz.  in  Pontus,  Cappadocia,  Galatia, 
Asia  and  Bithynia.     Several  of  the  Fathers  state   (Reithmayr, 
Eiril.,  p.   719)    that  Saint  Peter  had  preached  the  gospel  in 
these  countries.     The  readers  were  chiefly  Jewish  Christians, 

1  A  comparison  of  the  text  of  Jude  x.  with  II  Peter  ii.  12  shows  that 
Saint  Jude's  epistle  was  written  first. 


438    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

for  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Old  Testament  is  taken  for 
granted.  There  must,  however,  have  been  Gentile  Christians 
living  in  these  parts,  and  several  passages  refer  to  those  who 
have  only  just  learnt  to  believe  in  the  true  God. 

4.  Time  and  Place.     In  the  first  epistle    (v.   13)    Babylon 
is  mentioned  as  the  place  of  writing.     This  certainly  cannot 
be  Belbel  (Fostat)  near  Cairo  in  Egypt,  nor  the  great  city  on 
the  Euphrates,  but  it  is  undoubtedly  the  city  on  the  Tiber, 
which  stood  in  the  same   kind  of  antagonism  to  the  Church 
as  Babel  of  old  to  Israel.    The  apostle  seems  to  wish  his  resi- 
dence in  Rome  not  to  be  universally  known,  and  the  faithful 
would  easily  understand  what  he  meant  by  Babylon  (cf.  Apoc. 
xiv.  8,  xviii.  1,  etc.).1     Silvanus  or  Silas  is  mentioned  in  verse 
12  as  the  writer  of  the  first  epistle;   he  had  probably  come  to 
Eome  to  bring  news  of  the  churches  concerned,  and  Saint  Paul 
may  have  already  started  for  Spain.    The  first  epistle  was  com- 
posed at  the  time  of  the  outbreak  of  Nero's  persecution  (64), 
and  the  second  belongs  to  the  close  of  the  apostle's  life  (67), 
as  Saint  Peter  speaks  of  his  approaching  death  (i.  13-15). 

5.  Canonical  Validity.     The  first  of  these  two  epistles  has 
always  been  reckoned  among  the  o/jLoXoyovfieva,  but  the  second 
was  not  originally  allowed  to  be  read  in  all  churches.     Accord- 
ing to  Eusebius   (Hist.  Eccl.,  Ill,  3),  it  was  only  in  Alexan- 
dria that  it  had  always  been  read  at  public  worship,  not  in 
Syria  and  the  West.     In  the  Fathers  there  are  occasional  ref- 

1  Saint  Peter's  residence  in  Rome  was  denied  first  by  the  Waldenses 
and  later  by  the  Magdeburg  Centuriators  in  the  interests  of  Lutheran- 
ism,  but  now  there  is  scarcely  one  serious  student  who  questions  it.  The 
Anglican  Bishop  Lightfoot  acknowledges  that  Saint  Peter  lived  in  Rome, 
but  denies  that  he  was  ever  bishop  of  the  Christians  there.  ( "  The  Apos- 
tolic Fathers,"  London,  1890.)  Harnack  agrees  with  him.  Dr.  H.  Lisco, 
Roma  Peregrina,  Berlin,  1901,  tries  to  show  that  the  headquarters  of  the 
earliest  Christianity  were  not  in  the  city  of  Rome,  but  in  the  port  of 
Ephesus,  also  called  Rome.  He  thinks  that  Paul  and  Peter  founded  the 
church  here,  that  the  epistles  were  all  written  here  and  that  Ignatius  died 
in  this  place.  It  was  only  towards  the  end  of  the  second  century  that  the 
Church  migrated  to  the  Italian  city  of  Rome.  But  all  this  is  pure  fic- 
tion! C.  Erbes  tried  to  prove  that  Saint  Peter  died  at  Jerusalem,  not  in 
Rome.  He  bases  this  opinion  partly  on  Matt,  xxiii.  34,  etc.,  assuming, 
without  any  proof,  that  the  word  "  crucify "  here  refers  to  Peter,  and 
those  who  crucified  him  would  in  that  case  be  the  Jews. 


THE    BOOKS    OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT     439 

erences  to  and  quotations  from  it,1  but  still  many  seem  to  have 
been  afraid  to  use  it,  and  some  declare  it  to  be  a  forgery. 

The  following  considerations  are  in  favor  of  its  authenticity: 
(1)  The  unbroken  tradition  of  the  Alexandrian  Church,  which 
must  have  contained  many  Jewish  Christians  for  whom  the 
epistle  would  have  had  most  interest.  Mark,  who  founded  this 
church,  is  mentioned  by  name  in  1  Peter  v.  13,  and  after 
Saint  Peter's  death  he  may  have  brought  both  epistles  to 
Alexandria.  (2)  Ephrem  the  Syrian  often  quotes  the  second 
epistle,  and  calls  it  a  sacred  book,  written  by  Peter.  (3)  Saint 
Jerome  and  other  Latin  Fathers  of  a  later  date  regard  it  as 
authentic.  There  are  also  reasons,  derived  from  the  epistle 
itself,  for  thinking  it  authentic.  The  author  calls  himself 
Peter,  the  apostle  and  servant  of  Christ.  He  says  that  he 
was  an  eyewitness  of  the  Transfiguration,  and  he  refers  to 
his  previous  epistle  (iii.  1).  If  these  arguments  are  not  enough 
to  remove  all  doubt  as  to  its  authenticity,  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  Church  in  its  teaching  capacity  to  decide  the  matter.  This 
decision  has  been  given,  and  it  is  in  favor  of  the  authenticity 
of  the  second  Epistle,  so  that  no  one,  except  heretics,  can  con- 
tinue to  question  it. 

54.   THE  THREE  EPISTLES  OF  SAINT  JOHN 

1.  The  first  of  these  epistles  (five  chapters)  is  doctrinal,  and 
in  subject  matter  and  language  closely  resembles  the  fourth 
gospel.  The  chief  thoughts  in  it  are:  (a)  There  is  a  kingdom 
of  darkness  as  well  as  a  kingdom  of  light.  (6)  Jesus  Christ, 
the  son  of  God,  has  appeared  in  the  flesh  to  bring  men  from 
darkness  into  light,  (c)  We  must  therefore  believe  in  the 
divinity  of  Christ,  and  adhere  by  faith  to  the  Son  of  God; 
and  -then  (d)  through  Him  we  shall  become  children  of  God. 
(e)  For  this  reason  the  faithful  ought  to  love  one  another  as 
brethren. 

1  Clem.  Rom.,  Ad  Cor.,  I,  7 :  "  Noe  preached  penance,  and  those  who 
listened  to  him  were  saved."  Cf.  II  Peter  ii.  5.  Also  i.  11,  "On  account 
of  his  hospitality  and  fear  of  God,  Lot  was  saved  from  Sodom."  Cf.  II 
Peter  ii.  6.  Pastor  Hermce  Vis.,  IV,  3.  "  You  are  they  who  have  escaped 
from  this  world."  Cf.  II  Peter  ii.  20. 


440    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Analysis,  i.  1-ii.  28:  The  present  world  is  the  kingdom  of  darkness. 
Warning  against  love  of  the  world,  ii.  29-iii.  22:  Necessity  of  mutual 
love  amongst  Christians,  iii.  23— v.  17 :  Importance  of  faith  in  the 
divinity  of  Christ. 

The  author  nowhere  gives  his  name,  but  the  unmistakable 
connection  with  the  fourth  gospel  and  the  unbroken  tradition 
of  the  Church  point  to  Saint  John.1 

Date.  The  epistle  is  not  addressed  to  any  particular  church 
or  individual,  nor  does  it  end  as  the  circular  letters  of  the 
apostles  usually  do;  it  has,  in  fact,  not  the  form  of  a  letter 
at  all.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  theory  mentioned  in  the 
Muratorian  Fragment,  and  generally  accepted,  that  it  was 
intended  to  accompany  Saint  John's  Gospel  and  to  serve  as  an 
encyclical  for  several  churches.  It  would,  according  to  this 
hypothesis,  have  been  written,  like  the  gospel,  about  the  year 
100,  in  Ephesus.2 

1  In  his  epistle  to  the  Philippians,  c.  7,  Polycarp  quotes  I  John  Iv. 
2,  3.    His  disciple  Irenseus  (Adv.  Hcer.,  Ill,  16)  knows  the  epistle  as  the 
work  of  "  John,   the  Lord's   disciple,"   and   it  was   known   also  to   the 
author   of  the   Muratorian   Fragment,   Tertullian    (c.    Prax.,    15),    and 
others.    The  adversaries  were  not  Docetae,  but  Nomists,  i.  e.  adherents  of 
Judaism,  who  denied  both   our  Lord's  divinity  and  that  He  was   the 
Messias. 

2  The  so-called  Comma  Johanneum  did  not  make  its  appearance,  as 
many  suppose,  until  after  the  eighth  century,  in  the  Latin  Bibles.     In 
I  John  v.  7,  8  we  read:  "  There  are  three  who  give  testimony  [in  heaven: 
the  Father,  the  Word  and  the  Holy  Ghost.     And  these  three  are  one. 
And  there  are  three  that  give  testimony  on  earth]  :    the  spirit  and  the 
water  and  the  blood,  and  these  three  are  one."     The  words  within  the 
brackets  are  contested.    Dollinger  especially  charges  the  Western  church 
with  forgery,  because  the  passage  does  not  occur  in  the  Greek  manu- 
scripts  (Allgem.  Zeitung,  1887,  Nos.  88,  89),  but  it  is  indispensable  for 
the  context.     It  is  quoted  by  as  early  a  writer  as  Saint  Cyprian    (De 
Unit.  Eccl,  c.  6),  and  Tertullian   (c.  Prase.,  25)   also  refers  to  it.     The 
question  therefore  is  not  how  the  words  came  into  the  Latin  Bibles,  but 
how  they  fell  out  of  the  Greek.    Instead  of  charging  the  Western  church 
with  forgery,  Dollinger  should  have  accused  the  Greek  church  with  care- 
lessness.   Might  not  the  words  have  been  erased  from  the  Bibles  during 
the  disputes  with  the  Arians?    It  might  conceivably  be  to  their  interest 
to  suppress  such  passages.    Some  theologians  of  high  reputation,  such  as 
Franzelin,  Heinrich  and  Scheeben,  maintain  the  authenticity  of  v.  7; 
others,  e.  g.  Kaulen  and  Comely,  think  it  spurious.     Comely  doubts  its 
being  genuine  chiefly  because  Saint  Augustine  did  not  know  it,  for  the 
passage  generally  quoted  from  the  Speculum  is  not  in  Saint  Augustine's 


THE   BOOKS    OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT     441 

2.  The  second  epistle   (13  verses)    is  to  an  honorable  lady 
named  Cyria,  and  the  third   (14  verses)   to  some  one  named 
Cains.      Many   think   that    Cyria   may   be   a   name    for  some 
Christian    community,    and    that    Caius    may    have    been    the 
priest  who  presided  over  it.     Both  epistles  express  joyful  ap- 
preciation  of  the   zeal   of   the    Christians   to  whom  they   are 
addressed.     In  the  second   (verse  7)   is  a  warning  against  the 
errors  of  the  Docetae,  and  in  both  the  writer  gives  utterance 
to  his  hope  of  seeing  his  friends  again.     Both  seem  to  have 
been  written  after  the  gospel,  as  the  second  epistle   (verse  9) 
contains  a  reference  to  John  viii.   31  and  some  allusions  to 
the    first    epistle.      These    two    short    epistles    were    probably 
dispatched  soon  after  the  gospel  and  the  first  epistle. 

3.  There  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  authenticity  of  the  first  epistle; 
it  has  always  been  reckoned  among  the  6/10X070 v/jLeva,  but  many 
have  questioned  that  of  the  two  shorter  epistles,  and  it  has 
been  suggested  that  they  were  written  by  another  John,  the 
presbyter  of  Ephesus,  not  the  apostle,  as  the  writer  of  both 
epistles     calls     himself  6  Trpecrffvrepos.    But     we     have     seen 
(p.  393)   that  this  presbyter  is  identical  with  Saint  John  the 
apostle.      The    language    in   these   epistles    resembles    that   of 
the  first  epistle  and  gospel,  and  there  is  plenty  of  evidence 


work  of  that  name,  but  from  a  later  book  bearing  the  same  title,  and 
falsely  ascribed  to  him.  It  happened  that  Saint  Augustine  used  the 
Itala,  which  was  not  the  version  used  by  Saint  Cyprian  and  Tertullian. 
Kiinstle,  Das  Comma  Johanneum,  Feb.,  1905,  tries  to  prove  that 
the  passage  originated  in  Spain,  where  Priscillian  (ob.  384)  composed 
it  out  of  attempted  explanations  of  the  words  about  the  three  that  bear 
witness  on  earth.  Kiinstle,  however,  overlooks  the  importance  of  Cyp- 
rian's quotation.  The  latter  died  in  258,  so  Priscillian  lived  over  a  cen- 
tury later.  It  should  also  be  noticed  that  the  debated  words  occur  in 
the  Itala  MS.  from  Freising,  which  goes  back  to  the  sixth  century  (see 
p.  249).  A  decision  of  the  Roman  Congregatio  s.  Officii,  dated  Jan.  13, 
1897,  and  ratified  by  Leo  XIII  on  Jan.  15,  1897,  states  that  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  passage  cannot  be  tuto  either  denied  or  questioned.  This 
does  not  mean  that  henceforth  all  discussion  of  it  must  be  at  an  end,  as 
if  the  words  were  certainly  Saint  John's,  written  under  divine  inspira- 
tion; it  merely  means  that  they  form  part  of  the  text  approved  by  the 
Church.  We  may  of  course  hope  that  further  research  will  remove  all 
doubt  on  the  subject.  The  decree  is  intended  to  secure  their  position  and 
prevent  their  being  needlessly  abandoned. 


442    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

to  show  that  the  apostle  was  the  author.1  The  chief  reason 
for  doubting  their  authenticity  seems  to  be  that  they  were 
not  much  used  in  public  worship,  but  this  was  owing  to  their 
being  very  short  and  to  the  contents  apparently  being  of  a 
personal  nature.  In  later  times  anything  was  viewed  with  sus- 
picion that  had  not  from  the  beginning  been  used  at  public 
worship. 


55.   THE  EPISTLE  OF  SAINT  JUDE  THE  APOSTLE 

1.  Contents.     This  epistle  contains  admonitions,  and  briefly 
but  emphatically  warns  its  readers  against  the  attempts  made 
by  some  opponents  of  Christianity  to  lead  people  astray;    and 
it  also  describes  the  serious  consequences  of  such  errors    (26 
verses).     The  enemies  mentioned  in  this  epistle  were  probably 
not  yet  gnostics,  but  false  spiritualists,  who,  under  the  pre- 
text  of   Christian  liberty,   gave  way  to   all  kinds   of   sensual 
indulgence.2     They  seem  to  have  resembled  the  Manicheans  of 
a  later  date. 

2.  The  author  calls  himself  at  the  beginning  "  Jude,  the 
servant  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  brother  of  James."     In  the  lists 
of  apostles    (Luke  vi.    16;    Acts  i.   13)    the  name   occurs   of 
Jude,  brother  of  James  the  Less,  and  this  must  be  the  author. 
He  has  the  cognomen  Thaddeus    (tad  =  breast,  therefore  the 
courageous,  the  stout-hearted).     He  describes  himself  neither 
as  an  apostle  nor  as  a  brother  of  our  Lord,  though  he  was 
both,  a  proof  of  his  humility. 

3.  The  authenticity  of  this  epistle  was  generally  recognized 
in   ancient  times;    only   the   Syrian   Church  long   refused   to 
regard  it  as  apostolic;    and  on  this  account  Eusebius  places 
it  among  the  avTi\eyd/ji,eva.     The  chief  reason  for  doubting  it 
is  that  in  verse  9  it  seems  to  refer  to  the  apocryphal  book  known 
as  the  Assumptio  Mosis,  and  in  verses  14  and  15  to  Henoch, 

1  The  Murat.  Fragment ;  Iren.,  I,  xvi.  3 ;  III,  xvi.  8 ;   Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, Origen  and  others. 

2  Rampf  mentions  the  heretics  Simon  Magus,  Menander,  Dositheus, 
Gorthaeus,  Cleobius  and  Nicolaus,  who  were  distressing  the  Church  in 
Palestine. 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  443 

another  apocryphal  work.  Saint  Jerome  lays  particular  stress 
on  this  fact.1  It  should,  however,  be  noticed  that  this  refer- 
ence does  not  proceed  from  any  belief  in  these  books  being 
genuine  records  of  revelation.  The  writer  derives  his  state- 
ments from  Jewish  tradition,  and  uses  them  not  because 
they  are  in  apocryphal  books,  but  in  spite  of  that  fact.  These 
references  give  us  a  clue  to  the  readers  to  whom  this  epistle 
is  addressed. 

4.  Both  the  Book  of  Henoch  and  the  Assumptio  Mosis  are 
Jewish  apocrypha,  and  the  circumstance  that  the  author  calls 
himself  emphatically  "the  brother  of  James"  suggests  that  the 
Christians  addressed  were  Jews,  for  he  must  mean  James  the 
Less,  who,  as  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  was  the  chief  support  of  the 
Jewish   Christians.     Further  indications  that  the  epistle  was 
intended  for  them  occur  in  verse  5,  where  the  delivery  of  the 
Israelites  from  Egypt  is  mentioned,  in  verse  7,  where  there 
is  an  allusion  to  Sodom,  and  in  verse  11,  where  the  readers 
are  reminded  of  Cain,  Balaam  and  Core. 

5.  Date.     The  Jewish  Christians,  both  in  the  Holy  Land 
and  in  the  Diaspora,  were  in  a  very  dangerous  position,  as  the 
head   of    their   church,    Saint   James   the   Less,    had    suffered 
martyrdom  in  the  year  62,  so  that,  being  deprived  of  their 
accustomed  support,  they  were  without  support  and  defenseless 
in  face  of  attempts  to  lead  them  astray.     According  to  verse  3 
the  apostle  who  wrote  this  epistle  considered  it  his  duty  to 
address  it  to  his  countrymen,  who  were  struggling  to  preserve  the 
faith  delivered  to  them.    The  circumstances  under  which  it  was 
written  were  therefore  almost  the  same  as  those  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews.     Just  as  the  latter  warns  the  Jewish  Christians 
against  falling  back  into  Judaism,  so  does  this  epistle  warn  them 
not  to  let  themselves  be  drawn  into  heathenish  license,  under 
pretext  of  its  being  Christian  liberty.    It  must  have  been  written 
about  63-65. 

6.  The  place  of  its  composition  cannot  be  ascertained.     Ac- 
cording to  tradition,  Saint  Jude  preached  the  gospel  at  Edessa 
in  Mesopotamia.     This  at  least  is  what  Eusebius  states  (Hist. 

1  De  Viris  Illustr.,  c.  4. 


444    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Eccl.,  I,  13) ;  but  others  say  that  the  faith  was  preached  there 
by  one  of  Christ's  disciples  named  Addeus  (Addai).  Whether 
there  is  some  confusion  here  is  uncertain.  This  epistle  may 
have  been  sent  from  Jerusalem  to  Saint  Peter,  whose  second 
epistle,  written  in  Eome,  is  plainly  connected  with  it;  and 
he,  fearing  the  same  sort  of  dangers  for  many  churches  in 
Asia  Minor,  himself  wrote  to  draw  attention  to  what  Saint 
James's  brother,  who  was  well  known  to  them,  had  announced 
in  Palestine. 


THIRD  SECTION 

THE    PROPHETIC    BOOK    OF    THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

56.   THE  APOCALYPSE 
(22  chapters) 


1.  Contents.  This  revelation  (  aTro/caXu-^t?  =  disclosure)  of 
mystery  gives  information  regarding  the  future  of  the  Church 
of  Christ,  the  struggles  for  and  against  Christ,  and  the  final 
victory  of  the  faithful. 

It  is  divided  into  four  parts  :  1 

(1)  Chapters  i.-iii.  :    Communications  and  admonitions  ad- 
dressed by  Saint  John  to  the  Christian  churches  in  the  Eoman 
province  of  Asia. 

(2)  Chapters  iv.-xi.  :    Statements  as  to  the  future  of  the 
Church. 

(3)  Chapters  xiii.-xix.  :   Description  of  Christ's  warfare  with 
three  great  powers. 

(4)  Chapters  xx.-xxii.  :  The  end  of  the  world. 

i.  Christ  appears  to  Saint  John  at  Patmos,  and  gives  him  messages 
to  deliver  to  the  communities  of  the  province  of  Asia  (Ephesus,  Smyrna, 
Pergamus,  Thyatira,  Sardes,  Philadelphia,  Laodicea)  with  reference 
to  the  righteous  life  (i.-iii.).  The  real  revelation  now  begins. 

ii.  Saint  John  is  caught  up  to  heaven,  and  sees  God  on  a  throne,  sur- 
rounded by  twenty-four  ancients  and  four  wonderful  beasts.  God  holds 


1  The  unity  of  the  Apocalypse  is  defended  by  M.  Kohlhofer  and  Belser. 
Its  prophetic  character  is  recognized  also  by  H.  B,  Swete,  "  The  Apoca- 
lypse of  Saint  John,"  London,  1906. 


THE    BOOKS    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT     445 

in  His  hand  a  book  fastened  with  seven  seals  (denoting  the  future), 
which  no  one  but  the  Lamb  can  open  ( iv.,  v. ) .  One  seal  after  another  is 
broken,  and  each  time  appears  a  judgment  coming  upon  mankind  for 
the  purpose  of  improving  them.  After  the  sixth  seal  is  opened  there 
is  a  great  earthquake,  so  that  people  believe  the  last  judgment  of  God 
has  come.  But  a  reprieve  is  granted,  as  there  are  still  many  of  the 
elect  on  earth  who  are  not  to  perish  with  the  wicked.  There  then  ap- 
pears around  the  throne  of  God  an  innumerable  host  of  people,  who  owe 
their  salvation  to  Christianity  and  praise  God  for  it.  There  are  144,000 
of  the  Jews,  and  a  countless  multitude  of  Gentile  nations  (vi.,  vii.). 
After  the  seventh  seal  is  opened,  seven  angels  in  succession  blow  trum- 
pets, and  fresh  plagues  come  upon  the  world;  but,  as  soon  as  they  cease, 
sin  appears  again  (viii.,  ix.). 

Before  the  seventh  trumpet  sounds  Saint  John  has  three  visions: 
(a)  He  receives  further  communications  in  the  form  of  a  book  that  he 
has  to  swallow  (x. )  ;  (6)  he  has  to  use  a  measure  to  mark  off  the  inner 
part  of  the  Temple  from  the  outer  and  from  the  city  of  Jerusalem.  The 
outer  part  and  the  city  share  the  fate  of  unbelievers,  (c)  Two  witnesses 
of  God  are  announced  who  preach  penance.  They  are  slain  by  the  un- 
believers, but  raised  to  life  again  by  God.  They  are  generally  believed  to 
be  Elias  and  Henoch  (xi.).  Now  the  seventh  trumpet  sounds  (xi.-xv.). 
This  heralds  a  struggle  between  Christ  and  His  enemies,  and  at  the  same 
time  announces  the  victory  of  Christ. 

iii.  The  enemies  of  Christ  are  represented  first  in  types,  viz.  (a)  the 
dragon,  (6)  the  beast  with  seven  heads  and  ten  horns,  (c)  the  beast 
with  two  horns  (xiii.).  Ecclesiastical  commentators  generally  under- 
stand by  these  enemies,  (a)  the  devil,  (6)  the  powers  of  the  world,  an- 
tagonistic to  Christ,  (c)  the  prophets  of  unbelievers  with  their  false 
wisdom.  Christ  and  His  followers,  especially  virginal  souls,  are  op- 
posed to  all  these,  and  at  once  the  song  of  victory  is  raised  (xiv.). 

The  conflict  of  Christ  is  preceded  by  the  coming  of  seven  angels  pour- 
ing vials  of  God's  wrath  upon  the  earth,  thus  signifying  and  heralding 
the  last  judgment  (xv.,  xvi.).  As  these  also  effect  no  amendment  in  the 
wicked,  the  conflict  proceeds,  having  as  its  aim  to  execute  just  vengeance. 
The  first  to  be  subdued  are  the  tools  of  the  devil,  then  the  dragon  himself. 
Next  Babylon,  the  power  of  the  world  antagonistic  to  Christ,  falls,  and 
then  follows  His  victory  over  the  beast  representing  the  false  prophets 
and  wisdom  of  unbelievers  (xvii.-xix.).  Finally  the  dragon  is  overcome 
and  bound  for  one  thousand  years,  whilst  Christ  and  His  followers  rule 
on  earth  (xx.). 

iv.  After  one  thousand  years  the  dragon  is  let  loose  again,  and  tries 
to  stir  up  the  nations  against  the  saints  of  God,  but  He  overthrows  all 
His  enemies  and  casts  the  devil  and  the  two  beasts  into  a  pool  of  fire. 
Then  follows  the  resurrection  and  the  last  judgment.  Saint  John  sees 
at  the  end  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth,  and  the  new  Jerusalem,  i.  e.  a 
vision  of  the  Church  of  Christ  in  glory  (xxi.,  xxii.). 


2.    Character  and  Aim  of  the  Boole.     The  Apocalypse  is  a 
prophetic  book  and  foretells  the  future  destiny  of  the  Church 


446    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 

and  the  faithful.  But  just  as  many  of  the  Old  Testament 
prophecies  became  intelligible  only  after  their  fulfillment,  so 
it  will  probably  be  with  those  in  the  Apocalypse.  Failing 
special  instruction  by  the  infallible  teaching  authority  of  the 
Church,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  have  a  perfectly  sure  com- 
prehension of  this  book. 

(a)  It  does  not  contain  an  account  of  events  themselves  but  of  their 
types,  which  admit  of  various  interpretations.  ( 6 )  We  are  living  in  the 
midst  of  the  events  foretold  in  the  book;  and  just  as  it  is  scarcely  pos- 
sible for  each  combatant  in  a  war  to  form  an  opinion  as  to  the  general 
course  of  it  or  even  of  a  single  battle,  so  is  any  complete  comprehension 
of  the  struggles  of  the  Church  denied  as  a  rule  to  individual  Christians. 
Moreover  (c)  many  of  the  events  foretold  He  still  in  the  future.  It 
must  not  be  assumed  that  all  the  things  foretold  are  bound  to  happen 
exactly  in  the  order  in  which  they  stand  in  the  book.  For  instance,  in 
chapter  xviii.  we  read  of  the  fall  of  Babylon,  which  primarily  means 
heathen  Rome,  but  we  need  not  suppose  that  all  the  incidents  described 
before  this  chapter  belong  to  the  period  before  the  fall  of  that  city,  and 
that  only  those  that  stand  after  it  belong  to  the  centuries  following  the 
destruction  of  the  pagan  city.  We  cannot  as  a  rule  look  for  sequence  of 
time  in  prophetic  visions. 

Even  without  special  instruction  on  the  part  of  the  Church, 
we  can  understand  much  in  this  book  that  serves  to  console 
Christians  in  times  of  persecution,  and  especially  in  the  period 
preceding  the  judgment,  and  to  give  such  consolation  is  the 
chief  aim  of  the  book. 

Stress  is  laid  particularly  on  the  following  points :  ( 1 )  The  future  is 
determined  by  God  and  not  by  man.  (2)  The  future  of  man  depends  on 
Christ  and  His  Church.  (3)  The  various  evils  of  this  life  are  decreed  by 
God  as  a  punishment,  but  also  for  the  amendment  of  man.  (4)  God  is 
long-suffering,  He  waits  long  before  He  permits  the  judgment  to  come. 
(5)  Many  of  the  Jews  and  a  countless  multitude  of  the  Gentiles  will 
attain  to  eternal  salvation  through  Christianity.  (6)  The  depravity  of 
the  world  will  not  remain  limited  to  mankind  outside  the  Church,  but 
will  penetrate  even  into  the  Church,  that  is  to  say,  amongst  Christians 
(Jerusalem),  but  will  not  injure  it  in  its  essential  character.  (7) 
There  are  three  chief  enemies  to  Christ  and  His  Church:  the  devil,  the 
anti-Christian  powers  of  the  world,  and  false  knowledge.  (8)  The  vic- 
tory of  Christ  and  the  Church  over  these  enemies  is  absolutely  certain. 
(9)  A  completely  new  order  of  things  is  to  follow  the  resurrection  and 
the  last  judgment,  for  heaven  and  earth  are  to  be  transformed  and 
glorified  as  the  dwelling  place  of  God's  servants,  whilst  the  wicked  are 
cast  out. 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  447 

3.  Author  and  Authenticity.  The  Apostle  Saint  John  was 
the  author  of  the  Apocalypse.  This  is  plain  from  internal 
evidence;  he  calls  himself  John,,  speaks  of  the  island  of  Pat- 
mos  as  his  abode  (i.  9)1  and  occupies  the  position  of  pastor 
towards  the  seven  churches  of  Asia.  We  have  also  external 
evidence.  Papias,  a  disciple  of  the  apostles,  knew  the  Apoca- 
lypse and  called  it  the  work  of  Saint  John.  His  writings  have 
perished,  but  his  knowledge  of  the  Apocalypse  is  mentioned  in 
the  Fathers  (Cramer,  Catena  Pair.  Grcec.,  VIII,  360).  The  tes- 
timony of  Justin  Martyr  2  is  quite  clear,  so  is  that  of  Hermas  3 
and  that  of  Irenasus  (Adv.  Hcer.,  V,  xxx.  3).  Melito  of  Sardes 
(circa  150)  actually  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Apocalypse.4 

It  was  not  until  a  later  period  that  some  wished  to  deny 
Saint  John's  authorship.  Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  who  occu- 
pied Saint  Mark's  see  from  248  to  265,  laid  stress  on  the  fact 
that  Saint  John  does  not  mention  himself  by  name  in  his  other 
writings,  and  the  occurrence  of  his  name  here  makes  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  book  doubtful,  and  suggests  that  it  is  the  work 
of  another  author.  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl..  Ill,  25)  expresses 
himself  very  vaguely;  as  a  peace-loving  bishop,  connected  with 
the  court,  he  may  have  disliked  the  book  because  it  foretold  the 
destruction  of  the  Eoman  Empire.  The  chief  reason,  however, 
why  the  authenticity  of  the  book  was  questioned,  was  that  the 
Chiliastic  doctrines,  which  found  their  chief  support  in  the 
Apocalypse  (chapter  xx.),  assumed  after  the  third  century  a 
more  and  more  heretical  tendency.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Chrys- 
ostom  and  Theodoretus  did  not  acknowledge  the  book,  but  as 
soon  as  Chiliasm  lost  its  reputation,  as  it  did  chiefly  through 
Saint  Augustine,  all  doubt  regarding  the  authenticity  of  the 
Apocalypse  vanished  likewise. 

1  According  to   Pliny    (Hist.   Nat.,   IV,   12,  23)    Patmos  was   often 
used  by  the  Romans  as  a  place  of  exile. 

2  c.  Tryph.,  81:    "A  man  named  John,  one  of  the  apostles  of  Christ, 
prophesied  in  the  revelation  granted  to  him  of  the  one  thousand  years." 
Eusebius  too    (Hist.  Eccl.,  IV,  18)    says  of  Justin  that  he  knew  and 
recognized  the  Apocalypse. 

3  Hermas,  who  was,  according  to  the  Fragm.  Mur.,  brother  of  Pope 
Pius  I   (142-157)   derives  many  of  the  thoughts  and  expressions  in  his 
Pastor  from  the  Apocalypse  (e.g.  Vis.,  II,  4;   IV,  2). 

4  Euseb.,  Hist.  Eccl,  IV,  26. 


448    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

4.  Time  and  Place.     It  is  generally  believed  that  the  book 
was  written  during  the  reign  of   Domitian    (81—96),  on  the 
island  of  Patmos,  where  Saint  John  was  then  living  in  exile. 
Irenaeus   (1.  c.)   says:  "The  revelation  was  seen  not  long  ago, 
almost   in   our  own   time,   towards   the   end  of  the   reign   of 
Domitian."     It  is  assumed  therefore  that  the  Apocalypse  was 
written  about  the  year  96  (Kaulen,  271;   A.  Schafer,  353). 

5.  It  seems,  as  Kaulen  remarks,  a  special  dispensation  of 
Providence  that  at  the  end  of  Holy  Scripture  stands  a  book 
in  which  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth  are  placed  in  our 
anticipation,  whereas  at  the  beginning  of  the  Bible  the  account 
is  given  of  the  creation  of  heaven  and  earth.     Genesis  and  the 
Apocalypse   correspond  to   one  another;    the   one   depicts   the 
happiness  of  the  first  human  beings  in  their  intercourse  with 
God,  the  other  contains  the  promise  of  a  new  Paradise. 


FOURTH  PART 

INTERPRETATION   OF   HOLY   SCEIPTURE 
( HERMENEUTICS ) 
1.   INTRODUCTION 

r  II HE  name  "  Hermeneutics  "  (epfjLrjvevriKtj  sc.  re^vr])  comes 
A  from  ep/jLTjveveiv  =  to  interpret,  expound,  and  designates 
the  art  of  making  plain  a  writer's  meaning. 

There  is  the  more  need  to  expound  a  writer  the  more  remote 
he  is  in  time  and  place  from  his  readers,  and  the  more  the 
opinions  and  circumstances  of  his  age  and  country  differ  from 
their  own. 

The  fifty-eight  books  that  the  Catholic  Church  reverences  as 
sacred,  have  this  in  common  with  other  ancient  writing  that 
they  were  composed  in  foreign  languages,  now  long  dead,  and 
written  under  circumstances  of  time  and  place  differing  greatly 
from  our  own.  The  figurative  language  of  the  East,  and  espe- 
cially of  the  ancient  East,  is  strange  to  us,  and  the  numerous 
illustrations  derived  from  Eastern  people  are  frequently  unin- 
telligible to  those  who  live  in  the  colder  West  under  another 
sky.  Hence  the  comprehension  of  these  sacred  books  is  subject 
to  quite  other  conditions  than  those  governing  our  appreciation 
of  modern  authors,  and  it  is  often  impossible  without  special 
elucidation. 

Not  only  is  an  explanation  of  Holy  Scripture  indispensable 
from  this  merely  human  aspect  of  it,  but  we  must  remember 
that  its  divine  origin  raises  it  above  the  average  human  judg- 
ment, that  is  often  obscured  by  our  passions.  It  is  only  when 
a  man  allows  himself  to  be  guided  by  the  same  Spirit  who 
called  the  sacred  books  into  existence,  that  they  become  intel- 
ligible to  him.  The  Holy  Ghost  inspires  not  each  individual 
reader,  but  is  ever  active  in  the  Church,  the  pillar  and  strong- 


450    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

hold  of  truth.  If,  therefore,  an  individual  desires  rightly  to 
understand  and  interpret  Holy  Scripture,  he  must  find  out 
the  opinion  of  the  Church,  and  be  guided  by  it. 

By  biblical  hermeneutics  we  mean  the  sum  total  of  all  those 
principles  and  rules  in  accordance  with  which  the  sense  of 
Holy  Scripture,  both  in  its  human  and  its  divine  aspect,  can 
be  ascertained  and  expounded. 

We  have  to  ask :  What  are  we  to  understand  by  the  meaning 
of  Holy  Scripture,  how  is  it  to  be  discovered,  and  how  ex- 
plained when  discovered?  Our  subject  therefore  falls  into  three 
divisions : 

1.  The  meaning  of  Holy  Scripture. 

2.  The  discovery  of  the  true  meaning  of  Holy  Scripture. 

3.  The  explanation  of  the  text  of  Holy  Scripture. 

Hermeneutics  differs  from  exegesis  in  the  same  way  as  theory  from 
practice. 


FIRST   SECTION 
THE   MEANING   OF   HOLY   SCRIPTURE 

The  meaning  of  Holy  Scripture  is  its  true  signification,  or 
what  the  Holy  Ghost  intended  to  reveal  through  the  written 
word.  The  meaning  of  the  text  must  not  everywhere  be  limited 
to  the  literal  meaning,  as  underlying  the  letter  many  a  mystery 
is  often  concealed.  There  is  therefore  more  than  one  meaning 
of  the  written  word. 


2.   OF  THE  MEANING  IN  GENERAL  OF  HOLY  SCRIPTURE 

The  Fathers  and  scholastic  writers  both  distinguish  a  twofold 
sense  in  Holy  Scripture :  the  literal  and  the  mystical,  —  sensus 
literalis  and  sensus  spiritualis  sive  mysticus. 

1.  The  literal  sense  is  that  which  the  actual  words  directly 
convey.  This  is  again  twofold,  viz.  (a)  the  precise  and  (&) 
the  transferred  or  metaphorical  sense. 

The  precise  literal  sense  is  that  which  the  written  words. 


INTEKPKETATION    OF    HOLY    SCKIPTUKE       451 

taken  in  their  own  exact  signification,  convey,  e.  g.  Gal.  iv.  22 : 
"  Abraham  had  two  sons,  the  one  by  a  bondwoman  and  the 
other  by  a  free  woman."  The  literal  metaphorical  sense  is 
that  which  the  words  directly  convey  when  taken  figuratively. 
When,  for  instance,  in  Holy  Scripture,  our  Lord  is  called  a 
lion,  a  lamb  or  a  vine,  this  is  obviously  meant  not  strictly  but 
figuratively,  as  properties  are  ascribed  or  transferred  to  Him 
which  we  know  a  lion,  a  lamb  or  a  vine  to  possess.  These 
designations  denote  generosity  and  courage,  readiness  to  be 
sacrificed,  and  abundance  of  life  on  the  part  of  our  Saviour. 

2.  The  literal  sense  is  frequently  only  the  body  of  the  writ- 
ten word,  under  which  the  soul  or  spiritus  is  concealed.  The 
spiritual  or  mystical  sense  is  that  which  resides  not  in  the 
words  themselves,  but  is  suggested  more  or  less  obscurely  by 
means  of  the  things  signified  by  the  words.  It  is  called  mys- 
tical or  mysterious,  because  it  is  not  plain  to  view  on  the 
surface,  but  is  more  hidden,  and  generally  more  difficult  to 
discover  than  the  literal  sense.  So  Galatians  iv.  22,  the  pas- 
sage quoted  above,  is  explained  by  Saint  Paul  allegorically  of  the 
two  testaments :  Agar,  Ismael  =  the  Old  Testament ;  Sara,  Isaac 
=  the  New  Testament. 

The  older  theological  writers  distinguish  three  kinds  of  this 
mystical  or  spiritual  sense,  viz.  an  allegorical,  a  tropological 
and  an  anagogical. 

The  allegorical  meaning  is  the  reference  of  some  discourse 
or  account  in  the  Bible  to  a  doctrine  of  the  faith,  especially  to 
Christ  and  the  Church.  If  any  section  of  Holy  Scripture,  in 
addition  to  the  obvious,  literal  meaning  (for  the  mystical  sense 
always  depends  upon  the  literal,  and  proceeds  from  it),1  admits 
or  requires  some  reference  to  Christ  or  the  Church,  then  the 
passage  possesses,  over  and  above  the  literal  meaning,  also  a 
higher  and  mystical  sense,  which  is  called  allegorical.  Thus, 
for  instance,  the  story  of  the  rescue  of  Jonas  from  the  sea  is 
not  to  be  limited  to  the  prophet,  but,  according  to  Matthew  xii. 
39,  refers  also  to  our  Lord's  rest  in  the  grave  and  Eesurrectiori. 

The  tropological  or  moral  meaning  is  the  application  of  a 

1  Leo  XIII.,  Enoycl.  Providentissimus,  supra,  p.  167. 


452    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

passage  to  moral  life,  whilst  the  obvious  and  literal  interpre- 
tation gives  another  meaning.  Thus  Genesis  xv.  6,  "Abram 
believed  God,  and  it  was  reputed  to  him  unto  justice,"  has, 
according  to  Romans  iv.  23,  reference  also  to  the  necessity  that 
mankind  should  believe  in  Christ. 

The  anagogical  sense  of  a  passage  is  the  application  that  it 
allows  to  the  future  life,  over  and  above  its  obvious  and  im- 
mediate meaning.  Thus,  according  to  Matthew  xxiv.  37  and 
I  Peter  iii.  20,  the  account  in  Genesis  of  the  ark  may  be  applied 
also  to  the  faithful  who  find  salvation  in  the  Church. 

We  may  say,  therefore,  that  the  allegorical  interpretation 
concerns  faith;  the  tropological,  morals;  and  the  anagogical, 
hope;  or  the  allegorical  is  de  rebus  credendis,  the  tropological 
de  rebus  agendis  and  the  anagogical  de  rebus  sperandis.  The 
allegorical  may  be  said  to  be  based  upon  the  past,  the  tropo- 
logical refers  to  the  present,  and  the  anagogical  points  to  the 
future  of  the  faithful.  This  is  all  summed  up  shortly  in  the 
lines : 

Litera  gesta  docet,  quid  credas  allegoria, 

Moralis  [sc.  sensus]  quid  agas,  quo  tendas  anagogia. 

This  fourfold  interpretation  may  be  found,  for  instance,  in  the 
word  Jerusalem  or  Sion. 

It  is  de  fide  that  there  is  really  a  mystical  meaning  to  Holy 
Scripture,  for  Jesus  Christ  and  the  apostles  have  given  mystical 
explanations  of  many  passages.  Thus  our  Saviour  gave  a 
mystical  meaning  to  the  story  of  Jonas  by  applying  it  to  Himself. 
The  apostle  Saint  John  (xix.  36),  in  saying  that  our  Saviour's 
bones  were  not  broken  on  the  Cross,  refers  to  Exodus  xii.  46, 
where  it  is  forbidden  to  break  a  bone  of  the  Paschal  lamb.  As 
stated  above,  in  Galatians  iv.  24,  Saint  Paul  declares  Agar  and 
Sara,  Ismael  and  Isaac  to  be  representatives  of  the  Old  and 
New  Covenants. 

The  early  Christiana  were  plainly  instructed  in  the  mystical  or  typi- 
cal meaning  of  the  Bible  by  the  first  preachers  of  the  faith.  In  the 
catacombs  in  Rome,  which  served  the  Christians  of  the  earliest  ages  as 
places  of  assembly  and  worship,  Noe  is  often  represented  as  one  person 
in  a  floating  chest;  for,  according  to  I  Peter  iii.  20,  every  Christian  is 
saved  from  destruction  by  means  of  baptism,  as  Noe  was  saved  from  the 


INTERPRETATION    OF    HOLY    SCRIPTURE       453 

flood.  Abraham's  sacrifice  is  often  depicted  in  such  a  way  that  Pilate 
appears  as  judge,  for  that  sacrifice  was  a  type  of  the  death  of  Christ  on 
the  cross.  (Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach,  1895,  VII,  140,  etc.). 

The  Jews  too  had,  and  still  have,  a  method  of  interpreting  Holy  Scrip- 
ture in  a  spiritual  sense.  It  is  called  the  Midrash  ( =  investigation) ,  and 
is  an  explanation  that  goes  beyond  the  literal  meaning.  They  give  the 
name  Midrash,  however,  only  to  those  commentaries  which  go  back  to 
the  period  of  the  old  schools  in  Palestine  and  Babylon,  that  is,  between 
the  second  and  the  eleventh  centuries.  In  the  Midrashim  they  distin- 
guish the  Halacha  (HjSn,  way,  direction,  rule  of  conduct)  and  the  Hag- 
gada  (mjn,  story,  saying).  The  Halacha  is  the  authoritative  explana- 
tion, given  originally  by  a  high  priest,  or  by  the  synedrium  or  by  the 
scribes  in  the  schools,  and  so  it  embodies  a  tradition  affecting  manners 
and  mode  of  life.  The  Haggada  does  not  possess  this  official  character, 
and  is  the  work  of  private  individuals,  expressing  private  opinions.  In 
the  Haggada  the  mystical  interpretation  is  prominent. 


3.   OF  THE  APPLICATION  OF  THE  LITERAL  AND 
MYSTICAL  MEANING 

1.  Only  the  literal  meaning  can,  as  a  rule,  be  used  by  theo- 
logians in  proof  of  doctrinal  or  moral  truths.     The  reason  for 
this  is  that  the  explanation  of  a  passage  in  the  mystical  sense 
depends  in  a  great  degree  upon  personal  opinions  and  the  feel- 
ings of  the  individual.    The  right  with  which  one  person  claims 
to  explain  some  passage  of  the  Bible  in  the  mystical  sense  can 
be  claimed  by  another  for  the  purpose  of  overthrowing  such  an 
explanation. 

The  case,  however,  is  different  when  the  Church  has  pro- 
nounced in  favor  of  the  mystical  interpretation  of  some  passage, 
or  when  Holy  Scripture  or  the  consensus  of  the  Fathers  un- 
mistakably requires  a  mystical  explanation.  In  these  circum- 
stances the  mystical  meaning  constitutes  valid  evidence,  as  it 
is  then  clear  that  the  Holy  Ghost  has  intended  that  there 
should  be  a  mystical  meaning,  and  that  therefore  God's  word 
is  stated  mystically.  Thus  Deuteronomy  xxv.  4  serves  to  prove 
the  right  on  the  part  of  ministers  of  the  gospel  to  ask  and 
accept  their  support  from  the  faithful,  because  Saint  Paul  in- 
terprets it  thus  in  I  Corinthians  ix.  9.  The  same  remark  ap- 
plies to  Genesis  viii.  (cf.  I  Peter  iii.  20). 

2.  It  is  not  every  passage  in  Holy  Scripture  that  contains 


454    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

a  mystical  sense.  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen  and  the 
Alexandrian  exegetical  writers  in  general  went  too  far  in  this 
respect,1  and  tried  to  extract  a  mystical  sense  from  almost 
every  passage  in  the  Bible.  To  some  extent  Saint  Ambrose 
and  Saint  Gregory  the  Great  did  the  same.2  The  school  of 
Antioch,3  the  chief  representative  of  which  was  Saint  John 
Chrysostom,  did  not  go  to  such  extravagant  length.  What 
kind  of  mystical  meaning  can  be  discovered  in  sentences  such 
as:  "Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God,"  "Thou  shalt  not 
kill/'  etc.?  In  the  same  way  it  would  be  wrong  to  assume 
that  any  passage  in  Holy  Scripture  possessed  only  a  mystical, 
and  not  a  literal  meaning.4  Even  the  Canticle  of  Canticles 
admits  primarily  of  a  literal  interpretation,  although  it  would 
be  wrong  to  stop  short  at  it.  Not  a  book  nor  a  passage  in 
Holy  Scripture  can  be  mentioned  in  which  no  literal  sense 
at  all  is  discoverable. 

3.  Not  only  in  the  Old,  but  also  in  the  New  Testament,  can 
we  find  a  mystical  sense.  Saint  Thomas  Aquinas  tells  us 
(Summa,  I,  qu.  1,  art.  10)  :  Nova  lex  est  figura  futures  glorice, 
—  "The  new  law  is  a  type  of  future  glory."  In  the  same 
way  Saint  John  Chrysostom  said  that  Christ  fulfilled  the  old 
prophecies,  but  at  the  same  time  brought  in  others  and  by  His 
works  signified  what  was  in  prospect  (Horn,  in  Matt.  66).  A 
type  of  this  kind  is,  for  instance,  His  crucifixion  outside  Jeru- 
salem, which  signified  the  cutting  off  of  Christianity  and  Sal- 
vation from  Judaism,  according  to  Hebrews  xiii.  12.  Accord- 


1  Scholz  thinks  that  they  followed  the  Jewish  school,  but  this  is  not 
correct,  for  they  had  more  resemblance  with  the  pagan  philosophers  who 
gave  a  mystical  interpretation  to  the  stories  of  the  gods. 

2  Saint  Ambrose,  after  he  had  unexpectedly  become  bishop,  having 
had  no  theological  training,  applied  himself  zealously  to  the  study  of 
Holy  Scripture.    As  he  knew  Greek  well,  he  took  as  his  guides  Philo  and 
Origen,  from  whom  he  derived  his  tendency  to  mystical  interpretations, 
but  to  some  extent  he  followed  Basilius,  who  belonged  to  the  school  of 
Antioch.     In  his  commentary  on  the  book  of  Job,  Saint  Gregory  the 
Great  almost  restricted  himself  to  the  allegorical  and  moral  sense. 

*  To  it  belonged  also  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  who  is  too  sober,  even 
dry  and  rationalistic,  in  his  interpretations,  and  his  orthodox  brother 
Polychronius. 

4  See  Origen's  opinion,  supra,  p.  192. 


INTERPRETATION    OF    HOLY    SCEIPTUKE       455 

ing  to  Matthew  xxiv.,  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  seems  to 
be  a  type  of  the  last  judgment. 

Dr.  A.  von  Scholz,1  Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wiirzburg,  thought  he  could  vindicate  the  Bible  "  in  the  eyes 
of  the  learned  and  cultured  classes  "  by  giving  an  allegorical  interpre- 
tation to  most  of  the  books  in  the  Old  Testament.  In  his  rectoral  ad- 
dress of  the  year  1893  and  in  his  very  carefully  elaborated  commenta- 
ries, he  opened  up  new  lines  to  Catholic  exegesis,  which,  if  they  were 
correct,  would  lead  to  the  solution  of  many  of  the  problems  in  the  Old 
Testament.  According  to  Scholz  there  are  but  few  strictly  historical 
books;  almost  all  are  allegories  regarding  the  struggle  between  the 
kingdom  of  God  and  His  enemies.  "  The  Oriental  always  speaks  in  alle- 
gories. Our  Saviour  Himself  mostly  gave  His  instruction  in  parables."  2 
He  believes  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament  to  be  the  work  of  a  school 
in  the  far  East,  employed  in  collecting  and  multiplying  the  sacred  books. 
"  Isaias  and  Jeremias  are  a  collection  made  by  this  school ;  Ezechiel  was 
a  member  of  it,  and  so  he  is  the  sole  author  of  his  book.  The  book  of 
Daniel  originated  there  also;  his  name  designates  not  a  statesman,  but 
the  Messias  among  His  people.  Joel,  Abdias,  Habakuk,  Nahum8  and 
Jonas  were  all  compiled  after  the  Captivity,  as  well  as  Zacharias,  Mala- 
chias  and  almost  all  the  Psalms.  Joel's  grasshoppers  are  nations.  Haba- 
kuk mentions  the  Chaldeans ;  these  first  destroyers  of  Jerusalem  represent 
the  last  enemies  of  God's  kingdom.  The  reference  is  the  same  in  Nahum's 
Nmive  and  Abdias'  Edom.  Jonas  is  none  other  than  the  Messias;  the 
book  of  that  name  does  not  profess  to  have  been  written  by  Jonas,  but  to 
give  an  account  of  him.  The  problem  of  Qohelit  (Ecclesiastes)  is  solved 
in  Is.  xlix.  4;  Qohelit  is  the  Messias,  who  has  labored  in  vain,  at  least 
as  far  as  many  are  concerned,  and  whose  kingdom  will  be  attacked  and 
apparently  suppressed,  as  He  was  Himself."  The  grammatical  and  his- 
torical interpretation  must  also  to  a  great  extent  be  given  up.  "  Can- 
ticle of  Canticles  and  Tobias,  for  instance,  belong  together,  as  both  deal 
with  the  same  subject,  the  final  conversion  of  Israel.  The  same  relation 
exists  between  Threni  and  Job.  Judith  can  be  proved  not  historical. 
Esther,  Daniel,  Ruth,  Tobias,  Bel  and  the  Dragon  are  fantastic  stories, 
incredible  in  the  highest  degree,  but  in  reality  allegories." 

There  are  many  serious  arguments  against  these  hypotheses.  A  few 
may  be  mentioned  here : 

1.  Will  the  "  learned  and  cultured  classes  "  put  more  faith  in  these 
uncertain  allegories  than  in  the  historical  opinions? 

1  The  following  remarks  are  made  with  all  deference  to  the  zeal  and 
learning  of  this  eminent  man,  but  the  matter  is  much  discussed  at  the 
present  day,  and  some  mention  of  it  seems  necessary  in  a  book  of  this 
kind.    It  is  only  fair  to  say  emphatically  that  Dr.  Scholz  aimed  at  noth- 
ing but  serving  the  Church.     He  died  in  1908. 

2  It  should  be  noticed  that  our  Lord's  parables  are  always  easily  rec- 
ognizable as  teachings;    they  do  not  profess  to  be  historical    (such  as 
Judith,  Tobias,  Esther,  etc.). 

3  Happel  and  Pprnstetter  hold  similar  opinions. 


456    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

2.  If  all  this  be  true,  who  would  be  in  a  position  to  expound  the 
sacred  books  to  the  masses?     And  yet  these  books  are  intended  for  the 
instruction  of  the  simplest  people,  as  God's  word  is  always  to  be  made 
known.    Or  is  our  Lord's  teaching  alone  the  word  of  God,  and  not  also 
the  Old  Testament?    Cf.  Heb.  i.  1. 

3.  Christ  speaks  of  Jonas  as  an  historical  person,  and  contrasts  him 
with  Himself  (Matt.  xii.  40,  41).     "A  greater  than  Jonas  here!  "    "As 
Jonas  was  in  the  whale's  belly  three  days  and  three  nights,  so  shall 
the  son  of  man  be  in  the  heart  of  the  earth."     Or  are  we  perhaps  to 
give  an  allegorical  interpretation  to  the  account  of  our  Saviour's  rest 
in  the  grave  also? 

4.  The  headings  of  the  Psalms,  derived  from  Hebrew  tradition,  can- 
not be  simply  discarded. 

5.  Josephus  Flavius  regards  the  books  of  Esther,  Daniel,  etc.,  as  his- 
torical, and  so  supplies  evidence  regarding  Jewish  tradition  and  exegesis 
in  the  first  century  A.  D. 

6.  The  feast  of  Purim  and  the  feast  in  honor  of  Judith's  victory 
(Judith  xvi.   31)    testify  to  the  historical  character  of  the  books  of 
Esther  and  Judith. 

7.  In  the  Church,  the  exaggerated  allegorical  interpretation  of  the 
Old  Testament,  due  to  Origen  and  the  exegetical  school  of  Alexandria, 
found  no  favor,  although  the  Alexandrian  scholars  did  not  even  occupy 
themselves  with  the  distant  future. 

8.  The  order  of  the  Canon,  as  well  as  exegetical  tradition  in  the 
Church,  undoubtedly  favors  the  historical  view.    Neither  the  Fathers  nor 
later  commentators  know  anything  of  the  theory  of  so  extensive  an  alle- 
gory.   Cf.  the  encyclical  of  Leo  XIII. 

9.  Has  not  a  dread  of  the  miraculous  had  something  to  do  with  the 
origin  and  development  of  these  hypotheses?     "The  miraculous  in  the 
history  of  theocracy,  including  that  of  the  sacred  books,,  is  not  exterior, 
but  interior.    Omnis  gloria  eius,  filiw  regis,  ab  intus.     (Rectoral  oration, 
p.  35.)     Where,  however,  is  the  limit  to  be  drawn?    Are  Cain  and  Abel, 
Noe,  Melchisedech  and  Samson  not  historical?     Is  not  the  brazen  ser- 
pent historical?  or  the  manna?    Is  everything  merely  allegorical?     And 
what  are  we  to  say  of  the  miracles  of  the  New  Testament,  some  of  which 
are  not  less  striking?     Are  we  to  give  only  a  symbolical  meaning  to 
Christ's  walking  on  the  sea,  to  the  multiplication  of  the  loaves,  and, 
finally,  even  to  His  calling  the  dead  to  life? 

10.  If  these  hypotheses  were  correct,  all  our  catechisms  of  the  Catho- 
lic religion  and  all  our  handbooks  of  Christian  doctrine  for  schools  and 
colleges  would  have  to  be  withdrawn  and  revised.    Our  children  at  school 
must  no  longer  be  taught  "  Bible  History  "  as  the  truth,  but  it  must  be 
explained  to  them  as  a  collection  of  fictions.     In  the  same  way  the 
Archangel  Raphael's  name  must  be  removed  from  the  liturgy,  for  the 
Church  says,  on  October  24:    Deus,  qui  Raphaelem  archangelum  Tobice, 
famulo  tuo,  comitem  dedisti  in  via  .  .  . 

11.  Is  it  conceivable  that  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  Church  should  have 
kept  the  true  meaning  concealed  for  so  many  centuries,  and  only  have 
allowed  it  to  be  discovered  in  our  time? 

12.  The  Old  Testament  with  its  many  types  has  in  the  main  been 


INTEBPRETATION    OF    HOLY    SCRIPTUEE       457 

fulfilled  in  Jesus  Christ.  See  Luke  xxiv.  27 :  "  And  beginning  at  Moses 
and  all  the  prophets,  he  expounded  to  them  in  all  the  scriptures  the 
things  that  were  concerning  him."  The  Old  Testament  is  the  shadow 
of  the  New;  but  now  all  is  relegated  to  a  misty  distance,  —  almost  all 
the  Old  Testament  is  supposed  to  deal  with  the  end  of  God's  kingdom. 
Is  not,  however,  the  Church  of  Christ  now  present  with  us,  the  final 
kingdom  of  God?  Fond  as  Saint  Ambrose  is  of  allegories,  he  generally 
limits  them  to  Christ  and  the  Church;  so,  for  instance,  he  interprets 
the  story  of  Isaac  and  Rebecca  with  reference  to  Christ  and  the  faith- 
ful soul.  Origen  even,  who  often  goes  much  too  far  in  his  allegorical 
explanations,  sees  in  the  fall  of  the  walls  of  Jericho  only  an  indication 
of  the  success  of  the  apostles'  preaching.  We  do  not  deny  that  in  the 
Old,  as  well  as  in  the  New  Testament,  there  are  allusions  to  the  final  des- 
tiny of  the  Church  and  of  the  faithful,  e.  g.  Is.  xxiv.-xxviii. ;  Dan.  xii. ; 
but  such  allusions  are  so  clear  and  unmistakable,  that  there  can  be  no 
doubt  as  to  the  writer's  intention.  It  is  very  questionable  whether  this 
free  interpretation  of  the  sacred  books  is  in  accordance  with  the  Biblical 
Commission  of  June  23,  1905.  (See  Bibl.  Ztschr.,  1905,  p.  443.) 


4.   OF  ACCOMMODATION" 

1.  By  accommodation1  we  understand  an  explanation  by 
means  of  which  a  passage  of  Scripture,  without  regard  to  its 
real  meaning,  is,  by  a  kind  of  extension  or  reference,  applied 
to  something  quite  foreign  to  the  mind  of  the  sacred  writer. 

For  instance:  The  words  in  Ecclus.  xliv.  17,  Noe  inventus  est  Jus- 
tus, are  applied  by  accommodation  to  other  holy  men  also.  Again, 
Lament,  iv.  4,  Parvuli  pdtierunt  panem,  et  non  erat  qui  frangeret  eis, 
is  often  taken  to  be  a  play  upon  words,  and  applied  to  the  Christian  edu- 
cation of  the  young.  Esther  v.  12:  Etiam  eras  cum  rege  pransurus 
sum  is  referred  to  the  daily  sacrifice;  Psalm  Ixvii.  36,  Mirabilis  Deus  in 
scmctis  suis  means  in  the  original  "Wonderful  [or  fearful]  is  God  in 
the  sanctuary  [of  the  Temple],"  but  in  the  translation  it  can  be  applied 
to  the  saints. 

This  sort  of  interpretation  is  neither  directly  nor  indirectly 
motived  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  has  no  divine  authority; 
hence  it  can  never  be  used  as  a  foundation  for  any  proof. 

Nevertheless  it  may  be  used  for  purposes  of  edification,  for 

1  Accommodation  is  generally  called  sensus  accommodatitius,  but 
Comely  rightly  points  out  (Comp.,  127)  that  we  ought  not  to  speak  of 
an  applied  sense,  as  the  word  sense  always  refers  to  the  intention  in  the 
mind  of  the  writer,  and  that  is  not  present  in  this  case. 


458    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

it  occurs  in  Holy  Scripture  itself,  and  is  used  by  the  Church 
and  the  Fathers. 

For  instance  in  the  Breviary  the  words  which  in  Ecclus.  xliv.  20  refer 
to  Abraham,  Non  est  inventus  similis  illi,  qui  conservaret  legem  Excelsi, 
are  applied  to  every  Confessor  Pontiff. 

2.  There  are  limitations  to  the  use  of  accommodation,  and 
the  following  conditions  must  be  fulfilled: 

(a)  Such  an  interpretation  must  not  be  declared  to  be  the 
true  meaning  of  a  passage. 

(b)  It  may  be  applied  only  in  a  pious  manner,  so  that  there 
is  no  lack  of  the  reverence  due  to  Holy  Scripture.     It  would 
be  a  misuse  of  God's  word  to  apply  passages  of  it  to  profane 
things  or  in  jest.     This  is  expressly  forbidden  by  the  Council 
of  Trent    (Sessio  4),  and  bishops  are  required  to  punish,  if 
need  be,  any  who  act  in  a  contrary  way.1 

(c)  If  we  read  in  Holy  Scripture  that  this  or  that  was  done 
"in  order  that  the  Scripture  might  be  fulfilled,"  we  must  not 
understand  this  by  way  of  accommodation,  but  either  accord- 
ing to  the  literal  sense  (sensus  literalis),  if  anything  that  had 
been  foretold  actually  occurred,  or  according  to  the  mystical 
sense  (sensus  mysticus},  if  some  type  was  realized. 

For  instance,  in  Matt,  xxvii.  35  is  a  quotation  from  Ps.  xxi.  19: 
"  They  divided  my  garments  among  them,  and  upon  my  vesture  they 
cast  lots."  We  must  not  say  that  the  verse  of  the  Psalm  is  applicable 
to  our  Saviour,  and  can  be  used  in  reference  to  Him,  but  we  must  believe 
that  the  Holy  Ghost,  through  the  Psalmist,  was  indicating  an  event  in 
the  Passion  of  the  Messias. 


1  (8.  Synodus)  temeritatem  illam  reprimere  volens,  qua  ad  prof  ana 
quceque  com^ertuntur  et  torquentur  verba  et  sententice  sacrce  scripturce, 
ad  scurrilia  scilicet,  fabulosa,  vana,  adulationes  .  .  .  mandat  et  prcecipit 
ad  tollendam  huiusmodi  irreverentiam  et  contemptum,  ne  de  cetera 
quisquam  verba  s.  scriptures  ad  hcec  et  similia  audeat  usurpare,  ut 
omnes  huius  generis  homines  temeratores  et  violatores  Dei  iuris  et 
arbitrii  poenis  per  episcopos  coerceantur. 


INTEKPKETATION    OF    HOLY    SCRIPTUKE       459 


SECOND    SECTION 

OF  DISCOVERING  THE  MEANING  OF  HOLY   SCRIPTURE 
(Heuristics) 

The  use  of  biblical  criticism  is  essential  to  a  true  knowledge  of  Scrip- 
ture. We  may  distinguish  the  lower  and  the  higher  criticism.  The 
former  is  concerned  with  examining  and,  if  need  be,  with  correcting  the 
text.  As  in  course  of  time,  even  unintentionally,  some  corruption  of  the 
text  may  have  occurred,  we  have  to  try  to  discover  the  correct  readings, 
by  the  assistance  of  early  manuscripts,  ancient  translations  and  quota- 
tions in  the  works  of  the  Fathers  (supra,  p.  222,  etc.).  Higher  criticism 
deals  with  the  age,  origin,  authenticity  and  purity  of  the  sacred  books. 
It  is  aided  less  by  so-called  internal  evidence  than  by  historical  testi- 
mony, although  the  former  may  often  be  adduced  in  confirmation  of  the 
latter. 

That  form  of  criticism  is  erroneous  which  refuses  to  recognize  any- 
thing supernatural,  and  therefore  desires  to  eliminate  as  spurious 
whatever  appears  miraculous  or  prophetic. 

Moral  considerations  must  also  be  kept  in  view.  Whoever  wishes  to 
comprehend  the  meaning  of  Holy  Scripture  must  have  a  good  intention 
and  moral  purity,  for  "wisdom  will  not  enter  into  a  malicious  soul, 
nor  dwell  in  a  body  subject  to  sins  "  (Wisd.  i.  4),  and  he  must  also  have 
humility,  for  "  where  humility  is,  there  also  is  wisdom  "  ( Prov.  xi.  2 ) . 
Reading  and  study  of  the  sacred  books  are  no  less  necessary,  as  Sirach 
says  in  the  prologue  to  Ecclesiasticus ;  and  lastly,  he  must  pray  for 
understanding:  quod  est  prcecipuum  et  maarime  necessarium,  orent  ut 
intelligent  (Aug.,  De  Doctr.  Chr.,  Ill,  37). 

The  rules  to  be  observed  in  trying  to  discover  the  correct 
meaning  of  Holy  Scripture  are  partly  taken  from  instructions 
given  by  the  Church,  and  partly  proceed  from  certain  peculiari- 
ties of  the  sacred  books. 


5.   PRINCIPLES  LAID  DOWN  BY  THE  CHURCH 

Divine  revelation  itself  indicates  how  we  may  attain  to  a  cor- 
rect knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  Scripture.  In  II  Peter  i. 
2  we  find  the  following  statement:  Hoc  primum  intelligent es, 
quod  omnis  prophetia  scriptures  propria  inter pretatione  non 
•fit.  Non  enim  voluntat'e  Tiumana  allata  est  aliquando  prophetia, 
sed  Spiritu  sancto  inspirati  locuti  sunt  sancti  Dei  homines. 


460    HANDBOOK   FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

"Understanding  this  first,  that  no  prophecy  of  scripture  is  made  by 
private  interpretation.  For  prophecy  came  not  by  the  will  of  man  at 
any  time,  but  the  holy  men  of  God  spoke,  inspired  by  the  Holy 
Ghost." 


In  these  words  the  apostle  intends  to  deny  to  the  individual 
the  right  to  interpret  the  prophecies  in  the  Bible  according  to 
his  private  judgment.1  He  bases  this  prohibition  upon  the 
inspiration  of  the  prophets,  who  were,  he  says,  influenced  by 
the  Holy  Spirit  when  they  uttered  their  prophecies.  For  this 
reason  whoever  reads  and  studies  Scripture  must  not  stop  short, 
when  he  is  trying  to  discover  the  meaning,  at  what  the  writ- 
ings of  the  prophets  appear  to  him,  in  his  private  opinion,  to 
convey;  but  he  must  go  further,  and  have  regard  to  the  Holy 
Ghost  working  in  the  prophets.  As  the  same  Holy  Ghost  still 
guides  the  Church  and  protects  her  from  error,  and  as  the 
Holy  Scriptures  are  the  property  of  the  Church,  it  follows 
that  they  can  be  rightly  understood  only  in  and  by  means 
of  the  Church.  The  apostle  is  speaking,  it  is  true,  only  of 
the  prophetic  books,  but  by  analogy  his  words  apply  equally 
to  the  historical,  poetical  and  didactic  books.  They  are  all 
the  work  of  the  Holy  Ghost  that  brings  about  their  compre- 
hension no  less  than  their  origin.  The  apostle's  rule  was 
developed  and  explained  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  4)  in 
the  following  decision:  8.  Synodus  deccrnit  ut  nemo  SUM  pru- 
dentics  innixus  sacram  scripturam  ad  suos  sensus  contorquens 
contra  eum  sensum>  quern  tenuit  et  tenet  s.  mater  ecclesia,  cuius 
est  iudicare  de  vero  sensu  et  interpretatione  scripturarum  sanc- 
tarum,  aut  etiam  contra  unanimen  consensum  Patrum  ipsam 
scripturam  sacram  interpretari  audeat.2 


1  It  would  be  possible  to  refer  the  words  propria  interpretatione  to 
the  prophet,  in  which  case  Saint  Peter  would  mean  that  it  was  not  the 
prophet,  who  by  his  own  insight  and  penetration  perceived  and  made 
known  the  future,  but  the  spirit  of  God  influenced  him  to  do  so.     But 
interpretation  Gk.  tirLXvdis  =  solution,   implies  that  something  is  given, 
and  does  not  mean  penetration.     If  it  did,  the  two  sentences  would 
be  tautological. 

2  Almost  the  same  language  was  used  by  the  Vatican  Council  of  1870, 
Sess.  3,  cap.  2.     Particular  stress,  however,  is  laid  on  the  fact  that  this 
rule  applies  especially  in  rebus  fidei  et  morum. 


INTERPRETATION    OF    HOLY    SCRIPTURE       461 

"  The  holy  synod  declares  that  no  one  relying  on  his  own  judgment 
shall  dare  to  wrest *  Holy  Scripture  in  accordance  with  his  opinion,  con- 
trary to  that  which  our  holy  Mother  the  Church  held  and  still  holds, 
for  to  her  does  it  belong  to  decide  upon  the  true  meaning  and  interpre- 
tation of  Holy  Scripture;  nor  shall  any  one  dare  to  expound  the  same 
Holy  Scripture  in  a  way  contrary  to  the  unanimous  decision  of  the 
Fathers." 

In  this  decree  we  must  notice  first  of  all  that  "  it  belongs  to 
the  Church  to  decide  upon  the  meaning  and  interpretation  of 
Holy  Scripture."  This  is  a  fundamental  principle,  containing 
three  important  rules,  which  have  been  observed  in  the  Church 
from  the  beginning,  not  only  since  the  Council  of  Trent.  The 
Council  merely  gave  expression  to  the  tradition  of  the  Church 
on  this  point. 

1.  It  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  Protestantism  that  each 
person  may  and  must  read  and  interpret  Holy  Scripture  ac- 
cording to  his  own  subjective  judgment,  but  in  the  Church  it 
is  forbidden  to  regard  one's  own  opinions  as  the  sole  standard 
in   examining   Scripture.     No   one  is  allowed  SUCK  prudentice 
inniti,  in  contradiction  to  the  Church,  for  private  judgment  is 
fallible,  but  the  Church  is  infallible,  for  the  Holy  Ghost  was  not 
given  to  each  individual  but  to  the  whole  Church. 

2.  The  hermeneutist  may  never  go  beyond  the  limits  which 
the  Church,  guided  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  has  set  to  her  teach- 
ing;   if  he  lights  upon  an  interpretation  not  agreeing  with 
the  doctrines  of  the  Church,  he  must  recognize  it  to  be  false, 
for  the  Holy  Ghost  cannot  contradict  Himself.     For  the  same 
reason  the  commentator  may  never  contradict  that  particular 
interpretation  which  the  Church  has  ever  maintained  to  be  the 
correct  interpretation  of  a  passage. 

3.  The  hermeneutist  in  examining  the  meaning  of  Scripture 
must  not  depart  from  the  unanimous  decision  of  the  Fathers, 
and  he  must  not  pronounce  an  interpretation  to  be  correct 
that  is  at  variance  with  the  consensus  unanimis  Patrum.     The 
consensus  of  the  Fathers  is  nothing  but  the  expression  of  the 
view  taken  by  the  Church.     Where  all  the  Fathers  are  agreed, 
there   we  undoubtedly   have   the   apostolic   tradition   and   the 

1  Contorqueo  =  to  give  anything  a  forced  turn. 


462    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

opinion  of  the  Church.  When  the  Fathers  are  not  all  agreed 
regarding  the  meaning  of  a  passage,  we  are  free  to  adopt 
whichever  opinion  we  prefer,  provided  that  the  teaching  author- 
ity in  the  Church  has  not  decided  the  matter. 

These  rules  involve  no  limitation  of  a  reasonable  use  of 
human  liberty.  For  (1)  nothing  more  is  required  than  that 
man  shall  submit  his  opinion  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  guides 
the  Church.  (2)  Holy  Scripture  is  not  something  apart  from, 
or  superior  to,  but  of  the  Church,  i.  e.  it  belongs  to  the  Church, 
to  which  Jesus  Christ  intrusted  the  whole  of  revelation,  to 
make  it  known  to  mankind.  Holy  Scripture  stands  and  falls 
with  the  Church.1  The  contents  of  Holy  Scripture  are  thus 
nothing  but  the  written  doctrine  of  the  Church,  whose  right 
and  duty  it  is  to  watch  over  it,  so  that  human  passion  and 
prejudice  may  not  foist  upon  it  an  interpretation  contrary  to 
her  former  teaching. 

As  soon  as  the  Bible  is  separated  from  the  Church,  it  ceases  to  be 
respected.  This  is  plainly  to  be  seen  in  the  case  of  the  more  recent  sects. 
The  Reformers  wished  to  recognize  the  Bible,  and  not  the  authority  of 
the  Church,  and  their  adherents  followed  them.  But  the  consequence 
was  that  Holy  Scripture  has  gradually  lost  all  value  amongst  them,  and 
at  the  present  time  many  learned  Protestants  regard  it  merely  as  the 
work  of  men,  and  consequently  in  their  opinion  it  is  no  longer  the 
word  of  God.  They  have  rejected  the  idea  of  inspiration,  and  now  argue 
only  about  the  letter  of  the  book. 


6.   HERMENEUTICAL  EULES  BASED  ON  THE  PECULIAR 
CHARACTER  OF  THE  BIBLE 

In  so  far  as  the  Bible  is  the  work  of  men,  it  has  many 
properties  in  common  with  other  ancient  books,  but  as  God  is 
its  author,  it  has  also  certain  peculiarities  belonging  to  it  alone, 
as  the  book  of  revelation.  The  student  of  Holy  Scripture 
has  therefore  to  observe  the  following  rules: 

1  "  I  should  not  believe  the  gospel  itself,  unless  the  authority  of  the 
Catholic  Church  induced  me  to  do  so  "  ( Saint  Augustine ) . 


INTEBPBETATlQN    OF   HOLY    SCRIPTURE       463 


A.    On  ike  Human  Side 

1.  He  must  carefully  attend  to  the  connection,  both  gram- 
matical and  logical.     Both  kinds  of  connection  must  be  kept 
in  view  at  the  same  time,,  and  be  used  to  make  good  one  an- 
other's deficiences.     This  is  particularly  important  for  the  Old 
Testament.     In  Hebrew  the  subject  frequently  changes;    the 
numerous  particles  employed  in  Western  languages  are  want- 
ing;   the  verb  has  only  the  perfect  and  future  tenses;    there 
are  frequent  ellipses,  etc.     Thus  the  connection  can  often  be 
restored  only  by  means  of  the  laws  of  logic. 

2.  Of  still  greater  importance  is  it  to  observe  the  usage  of 
the  language.     We  mean  by  this  the  sense  of  a  word,  expres- 
sion or  sentence  which  at  the  time  of  some  definite  author  was 
generally  assigned  to  it. 

In  order  to  learn  the  usage  of  a  language,  we  must  have 
recourse  to  witnesses,  taking  as  such  the  other  authors  who 
wrote  in  the  language  of  that  particular  writer  whom  we  desire 
to  explain.  Witnesses  may  be  classified  as  direct  and  indirect. 
Direct  witnesses  are  authors  who  used  the  same  language  as 
their  native  tongue,  at  about  the  same  period.  Indirect  wit- 
nesses are  those  who  used  the  same  language  only  in  kindred 
dialects  or  at  another  period. 

The  following  rules  hold  good  with  regard  to  the  witnesses 
for  the  usage  of  the  language  in  the  Bible : 

(a)  We  cannot  trace  any  great  changes  in  the  development 
of  Hebrew  as  we  know  it  in  the  Bible.1  We  find  nearly  the 
same  language  in  all  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament;  Genesis 
differs  very  little  from  Malachias  in  language.  For  this  reason 
all  the  Old  Testament  writers  are  direct  witnesses  to  one 
another.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Greek  text  of  the  Septuagint, 
which  almost  all  belongs  to  the  same  period. 

(6)  The  language  of  the  New  Testament  is  based  to  a  great 

1  The  long  seclusion  of  the  people  of  Israel  and  the  respect  of  later 
writers  for  the  Mosaic  law,  were  two  causes  of  the  preservation  of 
Hebrew.  (<7f.,  however,  p.  270,  (e).)  In  the  same  way  Arabic  changed 
very  little  for  several  centuries,  because  the  Koran  was  regarded  as  the 
model  of  style. 


464    HANDBOOK  FOB  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

extent  upon  that  of  the  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old.  A 
writer  of  the  Septuagint  is  regarded,  therefore,  as  a  direct 
witness  for  the  Greek  New  Testament,  and  vice  versa.  All 
the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  are  direct  witnesses  to  one 
another,  as  they  all  wrote  about  the  same  time,  viz.  in  the 
first  century. 

(c)  The  earlier  Greek  Fathers  may  be  used  as  direct  wit- 
nesses for  the  New  Testament  and  the  Septuagint,  because  they 
copied  the  language  of  the  Septuagint  and  the  New  Testament. 
The  Chaldee,  Syriac  and  Arabic  writers  are  indirect  witnesses, 
and  so  are  the  later  Greek  Fathers  and  the  Greek  profane 
authors. 

3.  Parallel  passages  of  the  sacred  books  serve  to  throw  light 
on  the  usage  of  the  language.  In  order  to  discover  these  more 
easily,  use  is  made  of  biblical  concordances,  which  are  either 
concordances  of  words  or  of  subjects. 

The  former  give,  in  alphabetical  order,  stating  chapter  and 
verse,  all  the  places  where  some  particular  word  occurs  in  the 
Bible.  The  latter  do  not  notice  the  words,  but  they  state,  in 
a  series  of  articles  arranged  alphabetically,  all  that  is  to  be 
found,  scattered  up  and  down  the  Bible,  on  certain  subjects, 
such  as  baptism,  sacrifice,  prayer,  Juda,  Sion,  etc.  Verbal 
concordances  have  been  made  for  the  Hebrew  as  well  as  for 
the  Greek  and  Latin  texts  of  the  Bible.1 


1  The  best  verbal  concordances  are:  of  the  Hebrew  text,  Buxtorf, 
Bale,  1632.  This  important  work,  revised  by  Fiirst  and  Bar,  is  even  sur- 
passed by  the  Hebr.-Chald.  Konkordanz  des  Alien  Testaments,  by  Sal. 
Mandelkern,  Leipzig,  1896. 

Of  the  Septuagint,  there  is  Tromm's  Concordance,  Amsterdam,  1718, 
and  an  excellent  new  one  by  Hatch  and  Redpath,  6  parts,  Oxford,  1897, 
in  which  reference  is  made  also  to  other  early  Greek  versions.  Another 
concordance  to  the  proper  names  in  the  Septuagint  was  also  published 
in  Oxford.  Of  the  Vulgate  there  is  a  useful  concordance  by  Fr.  Lucas, 
Antwerp,  1618,  etc.  An  abbreviated  concordance  of  the  Vulgate,  in- 
tended especially  for  preachers,  was  brought  out  by  Cornaert,  Ratisbon, 
1897.  Based  upon  the  very  useful  Manuals  concord,  by  P.  de  Raze,  is 
the  comprehensive  Thesaurus  concord,  scr.  s.,  compiled  by  Peultier,  Eti- 
enne  and  Gantois,  Ratisbon,  1898. 

Of  subject  concordances  we  may  mention  Calmet,  Lexicon  biblicum; 
Lueg,  Realkonkordanz  (5th  ed.,  1900);  Winer  (Prot.),  Bibl.  Worter- 
buch;  Riehm,  Bibel-Lexikon ;  Guthe,  Kurzes  Bibelworterbuch  (both 


INTEEPRETATION    OF    HOLY    SCEIPTURE       465 


B.    On  the  Divine  Side 

4.  We  must  notice  the  relation   in  which  the   two   Testa- 
ments stand  to  one  another.1     The  Old  Testament  is  to  be 
regarded  as  prefiguring  what  was-  to  come  through  and  after 
Christ,  as  the  umbra  futurorum  bonorum  (Heb.  x.  1;    Col.  ii. 
7).     It  is-  connected  with  the  New  Testament  as  the  bud  with 
the  blossom,  as  the  announcement  with  the  fulfillment,  as  the 
shadow  with  the  light.     Therefore  one  Testament  cannot  be 
properly  understood   without  reference  to   the  other    (see   H. 
Weiss,  Hessian.  Vorbilder  im  A.  T.,  Feb.,  1905). 

5.  Here  and  there  in  the  New  Testament  passages  are  quoted 
from  the  Old,  which  cannot  be  found  there  in  precisely  thfe 
same  form.     We  need  not  think  that  the  text  has  been  tam- 
pered with;    ancient  writers  generally  quoted  according  to  the 
sense,  disregarding  verbal  accuracy.     On  account  of  the  rarity 
and  costliness  of  manuscripts,  it  was  not  always  possible  to 
verify   quotations.     Many   are   therefore   inaccurate  from   our 
point  of  view,  but  they  are  not  falsified  on  that  account  (e.  g. 
Matt.  ii.  23;   John  vii.  38,  quoted  roughly  from  Is.  xliv.  1-3). 

6.  We  must  not  be  offended  by  anthropomorphic  expressions, 
which  seem  to  us  out  of  keeping  with  our  conception  of  God.    It 
is  with  a  well-considered  design  that  Holy  Scripture  speaks  of 
God  as  of  a  Being  resembling  man,  and  ascribes  to  Him  a 
face,  eyes,  ears,  mouth,  hands,  feet  and  the  senses  of  smell 
and  hearing.    This  is  done  out  of  consideration  for  man's  power 
of  comprehension;    and  the  same  is  the  case  when  the  Bible 

Prot.).  Also  a  large  but  still  unfinished  work  by  Vigouroux,  Diction- 
naire  de  la  Bible,  Paris;  and  an  English  (Prot.)  Dictionary  of  the  Bible 
by  James  Hastings,  Edinburgh,  1898—1902,  4  vols.,  with  an  extra  volume 
published  in  1904 ;  the  Encyclopedia  Biblica  by  Cheyne  and  Sutherland 
Black,  4  vols.,  London,  1903.  See  also  the  article  Bibelkonkordanzen  in 
the  Kirchenlexikon,  II,  636. 

1  S.  Aug.  qu.  30  in  Exod.:  In  veteri  testamento  novum  latet;  in  novo 
testamento  vetus  patet.  In  Luke  xxiv.  44,  46,  47,  our  Lord  says  to  the 
apostles:  "All  things  must  needs  be  fulfilled  which  are  written  in  the 
law  of  Moses,  and  in  the  prophets,  and  in  the  psalms,  concerning  me.  .  .  . 
Thus  it  is  written,  and  thus  it  behoved  Christ  to  suffer,  and  to  rise  again 
from  the  dead  the  third  day:  and  that  penance  and  remission  of  sins 
should  be  preached  in  his  name  unto  all  nations,  beginning  at  Jerusalem." 


466    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

represents  God  as  loving  or  hating,  as  jealous,  angry,  glad 
or  filled  with  regret,  dispositions  which  apply  to  God  not  per 
affectum  but  per  effectum.  They  show  us  that  God  is  not 
coldly  indifferent  to  loyalty  or  disloyalty  on  the  part  of  men, 
but  notices  them  well.  Moreover  we  must  not  forget  that  man 
is  made  in  the  likeness  of  God,  and  that  therefore  in  the 
divine  Being  there  must  be  something  analogous  to  the  quali- 
ties of  men,  though  in  the  highest  perfection. 


THIRD    SECTION 
EXPLANATIONS     OF    THE     TEXT    OF     HOLY    SCRIPTURE 

As  early  as  v  the  times  of  the  Fathers  much  attention  was 
paid  to  expounding  the  sacred  books,  as  a  powerful  means  for 
furthering  the  knowledge  and  piety  of  the  faithful  and  for 
warding  off  heresies.  Every  one  knows  how  much  Origen,  Saint 
John  Chrysostom,  Saint  Ambrose,  Saint  Jerome,  Saint  Augus- 
tine and  Saint  Gregory  the  Great  contributed  to  the  elucida- 
tion of  Holy  Scripture.  The  same  activity  has  continued  in 
every  century,  and  various  methods  of  explanation  have  been 
developed.  It  is  usual  to  distinguish  four  kinds  of  interpre- 
tation, viz.  paraphrases,  scholia,  glosses  and  commentaries. 
Every  age  has  produced  paraphrases,  but  scholia  belong  to  the 
time  of  the  Fathers,  glosses  to  the  Middle  Ages,  and  com- 
mentaries to  the  present  day. 

Explanations  in  the  form  of  homilies  were  usual  particularly  in  the 
time  of  the  Fathers,  and  were  intended  not  only  to  supply  a  practical 
need,  but  to  promote  a  better  understanding  of  Scripture.  They  would 
be  well  adapted  for  the  present  time.  Saint  John  Chrysostom  and  Saint 
Augustine  have  left  us  models  of  this  method  of  exegesis. 

7.   PARAPHRASES 

A  paraphrase  of  Holy  Scripture  is  the  method  of  explaining 
the  meaning  of  the  words,  which,  while  retaining  the  consecutive 
language  of  the  author,  inserts  in  his  text  whatever  may  conduce 
to  its  elucidation.  Explanations  such  as  seem  serviceable  are  put 


INTEBPEETATION    OF    HOLY    SCEIPTUEE       467 

into  the  author's  mouth,  and  his  statements  are  expanded,  so 
that  he  is  made  to  elucidate  himself. 

The  essential  qualities  of  a  good  paraphrase  are : 

(1)  Fidelity.     If  any  one  seeks  information  from  a  paraphrase,  he 
wishes  to  learn  from  it  the  author's  meaning  and  not  the  paraphrast's 
subjective  opinions.     Every  deviation  from  the  true  meaning  and  con- 
tents of  the  language  of  a  sacred  writer  would  be  a  fraud  practiced  on 
the  reader. 

(2)  Intelligibility.    The  measure  of  this  quality  is  determined  by  the 
amount  of  education  possessed  by  those  for  whom  the  paraphase  is  in- 
tended.    It  must  therefore  be  more  or  less  detailed,  as  it  is  intended  for 
uneducated  or  educated  readers.     As  a  general  rule  in  a  paraphrase   (a) 
unintelligible  and  unfamiliar  expressions  are  replaced  by  words  in  ordi- 
nary use ;     ( 6 )  where  the  meaning  is  obscure,  it  must  be  expressed  clearly 
in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  hermeneutics ;     (c)    where  there  is  an 
obvious  omission,  it  must  be  supplied  by  a  short  interpolation. 

(3)  Dignified   diction.     The   paraphrast   must   use   stately  language, 
doing  his  best  to  adapt  it  to  the  words  of  the  original,  so  that  the  simple 
and  dignified  character  of  Holy  Scripture  is  not  destroyed.     All  words 
and  phrases  used  only  in  the  vulgar  language  of  everyday  life  must 
be  avoided,  because  reverence  for  the  word  of  God  ought  to  appear  equally 
in  the  paraphrase. 

8.    SCHOLIA 

Scholia  are  short  notes  on  the  text  of  a  book,  and  they 
exist  on  that  of  the  Bible.  They  deal  with  the  whole  text, 
and  in  this  way  differ  from  glosses,  which  single  out  for  ex- 
planation only  particular  words  and  phrases.  They  differ 
from  commentaries  by  their  brevity  and  conciseness,  and  by 
their  avoidance  of  every  kind  of  excursus.  The  requirements 
of  a  good  exegesis  in  scholia  are:  (a)  a  short  introduction,  (6) 
a  continuous  explanation,  relevant  and  philological,  (c)  criti- 
cism and  emendation  of  the  text. 

Bibliography.  In  ancient  times  the  scholia  of  Theodorus  of  Mopsu- 
estia  enjoyed  great  reputation,  although  his  jejune  and  frivolous  inter- 
pretations often  caused  annoyance  and  offense.  The  textual  elucidations 
of  Saint  John  Chrysostom  and  of  Theodoretus,  bishop  of  Cyrus  in  Syria, 
won  universal  approbation.  Saint  Jerome  too,  and  Saint  Augustine,  tried 
to  some  extent  to  expound  the  Bible  by  means  of  scholia.  The  works 
of  these  four  scholars  are  of  great  value  to  us,  especially  because  they 
adhere  to  the  literal  meaning,  without  however  excluding  the  mys- 
tical. Procopius  of  Gaza  (A.  D.  600)  collected  earlier  Greek  scholia. 
The  Greek  writers  Theophylactus,  who  became  Archbishop  of  Achris  in 
Bulgaria  in  1078,  and  Euthymius  Zigabenus,  monk  in  a  religious  house 


468    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

near  Constantinople  in  the  eleventh  century,  followed  St.  John  Chrysos- 
tom  and  Theodoretus,  for  which  reason,  although  they  themselves  were 
schismatics,  their  scholia  are  still  valued  and  used.  Oecumenius,  bishop 
of  Tricca  in  Thessaly,  is  supposed  to  have  written  scholia  on  the  Acts 
and  Epistles  about  the  year  600;  they  are  generally  quoted  under  his 
name,  but  it  is  quite  possible  that  they  were  the  work  of  some  other 
author.  It  is  certain  that  Oecumenius  wrote  an  interpretation  of  the 
Apocalypse  in  the  form  of  a  commentary;  it  has  been  recently  dis- 
covered by  Fr.  Diekamp. 

9.    GLOSSES 

1.  By  glosses  we   mean   a  form  of   elucidation  that  deals 
only  with  single  obscure  words,  and  does  not  aim  at  explain- 
ing the  subject  matter. 

The  word  y\w<rffa  means  primarily  tongue,  then  language,  but  the 
Greek  grammarians,  who  expounded  the  Greek  authors,  applied  the 
word  y\uffffa  to  some  obscure  word  in  the  text  requiring  explanation; 
the  remark  elucidating  it  was  called  yXufffftjua.  Soon,  however,  the 
usage  was  reversed;  the  obscure  word  in  the  text  was  called  the 
yXuffarjua,  and  its  explanation  yXuffo-a.  The  two  words  were  adopted  into 
western  languages  with  these  significations.  Many  glosses  written  by 
the  earliest  readers  of  the  Bible  have  crept  into  the  sacred  text,  but 
they  are  as  a  rule  easily  recognizable. 

2.  The   subjects   of   the   Greek   grammarians'   glosses   were 
words  not  generally  known,  especially  those  derived  from  for- 
eign languages,  provincialisms,  unfamiliar,  obsolete  and  tech- 
nical expressions.     They  wrote  their  remarks  or  glosses  gen- 
erally in  the  margin  of  a  copy  of  the  author  whom  they  were 
studying,  but  sometimes  the  glosses  were  written  apart  in  a 
separate    book.      Following   this    method,    Greek    ecclesiastical 
writers  composed  glosses  on  obscure  words  in  the  Greek  of  the 
Old   and   New   Testaments.      Subsequent   Greek   grammarians 
collected  glosses  of  this  kind,  adding  others  of  their  own,  and 
arranging  the  whole  collection  alphabetically,  so  that  the  ob- 
scure word  in  the  text  stood  first,  and  then  a  word  or  note 
by  way  of  interpretation  of  it.     These  collections  are  called 
glossaries,  and  the  author  or  collector  of  glosses  is  a  glossator. 
A  glossary  differs  from  a  dictionary  in  not  containing  all  the 
words  of  a  language,  but  only  the  obscure  words  with  their 
interpretation. 


INTERPKETATION    OF    HOLY    SCRIPTUBE       469 

3.  The  chief  among  the  Greek  glossators  is  Hesychius,  an 
Alexandrian  grammarian  of  the  fourth  century.     His  glossary 
(which  he  himself  called  a  lexicon)    has  come  down  to  us. 
That  of  Suidas,  a  Greek  grammarian  who  lived  about  1000  A.  D., 
is  equally  important. 

Other  valuable  lexicons  or  glossaries  are  those  of  Zonaras  of  Con- 
stantinople, a  Greek  monk  who  lived  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  of  Pho- 
tius,  a  well-known  Patriarch.  We  ought  also  to  mention  the  Etymolo- 
gicum  Magnum,  compiled  by  an  unknown  scholar  in  the  eleventh  century, 
and  the  Glossarium  of  Varinus  Phavorinus  (ob.  1537),  a  Benedictine 
from  Camerino  in  Umbria,  who  had  been  a  pupil  of  the  Greek  scholar, 
John  Lascaris.  Most  of  these  glossaries  deal  with  profane  works  as  well 
as  Holy  Scripture,  but  special  glossaries,  containing  only  words  from  the 
Bible,  have  been  compiled  from  them  and  published.1  A  collection  of 
Latin  glossaries  was  made  by  Lowe  and  Gotz,  1888-1901. 

4.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  word   y\a)o-ffa   acquired  a  some- 
what  different  meaning.     It   was   applied  to   a   collection   of 
short,   objective  elucidations  of  Holy   Scripture,  and  particu- 
larly of  the  Vulgate.     The  mediaeval  glosses  scarcely  differ  at 
all  from  scholia.     Glosses  of  this  kind  are  also  called  catena, 
when  several  old  explanations  are,  as  it  were,  linked  together 
and  given  one  after  the  other.     The  most  famous  of  these  is 
the  Catena  aurea  of  Saint  Thomas  Aquinas,  a  collection  in  very 
condensed  form  of  earlier  elucidations  of  the  gospels,  collected 
from  over  eighty  Greek  and  Latin  authors  (new  edition,  Turin, 
1894).     A  Jesuit  named  Cordier,  who  lived  at  Antwerp  about 
1628,   did  excellent  work  in  editing  catena.2     We  have  two 
especially  famous  glosses  dating  from  the  Middle  Ages,  viz. 
Walafried   Strabo's   Glossa   Ordinaria  and  Anselm   of  Laon's 
Glossa  interlinearis. 

Walafried  Strabo  (born  807,  died  as  Abbot  of  the  monastery 
at  Eeichenau,  near  Constance,  in  849),  taking  as  his  founda- 
tion the  elucidations  of  Scripture  given  by.  his  master  Ehabanus 
Maurus,  compiled  a  glossa  of  the  Vulgate  text  of  the  Old  and 

1  Ernesti,  Glossce  sacrce  Hesychii,  etc.     Lipsies,  1785-86. 

2  We  mention  also  Pearson's  Critici  Sacri,  9  vols.,  London,  1660,  and 
Frankfurt  am  Main,  1695-1701,  a  collection  of  Catholic  and  Protestant 
commentators ;    also  J.  A.  Cramer's  collections  of  "  Catenae  from  the 
Greek  Fathers,"  Oxford,  1838-1844. 


470    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

New  Testaments,  which  was  afterwards  called  the  Glossa  Or- 
dinaria,  partly  because  it  was  so  generally  used,  and  partly 
to  distinguish  it  from  Anselm's  work.  Strabo's  explanations 
are  mostly  derived  from  the  Fathers,  but  he  added  a  good 
many  of  his  own,  and  for  nearly  seven  hundred  years,  viz.  from 
the  ninth  to  the  sixteenth  century,  his  work  was  for  theolo- 
gians the  ordinary  and  almost  the  only  exegesis  of  Holy 
Scripture.  (His  complete  works  may  be  found  in  Migne's 
Patrologia,  Tom.  113,  114.)  In  the  twelfth  century  Anselm, 
dean  of  the  Cathedral  at  Laon  (ob.  1117),  attempted  to  make 
a  still  shorter  interpretation  by  writing  easily  intelligible  words 
or  very  brief  remarks  above  the  obscure  words  in  the  Vulgate, 
between  the  lines  of  the  text,  so  that  his  work  received  the 
name  of  Glossa  Interlinearis.  From  the  twelfth  century  onwards 
the  Vulgate  was  regularly  copied  with  both  these  glosses,  so 
that  the  text  stood  in  the  middle  of  the  page,  the  glossa  or- 
dinaria  on  the  upper  margin  and  on  either  side  of  the  text, 
and  the  glossa  interlinearis  between  the  lines  of  it.  After  the 
fourteenth  century  the  postil *  by  the  Franciscan  Nicholas  of 
Lyra  (Lyranus,  ob.  1340) 2  and  the  additions  made  by  Bishop 
Paul  of  Burgos  3  were  written  on  the  very  broad  margin  left 
below  the  Bible  text.  In  this  form  the  Vulgate  appeared 
among  the  first  productions  of  the  printing  press. 


10.    COMMENTARIES 

1.  By  a  commentary  we  mean  a  connected  and  exhaustive 
explanation  of  the  meaning  of  a  book.     This  form  of  exegesis 
belongs   to   recent  times,   and   is   connected  with   the   classical 
studies  that  have  been  carried  on  in  preference  to  others  since 
the  fifteenth  century. 

2.  A  biblical  commentary  may  be  concerned  with  the  exe- 

1  The  name  comes  from  the  words:    Post  ilia  sc.  verba  textus, — 
the  explanation  followed  the  text. 

2  His  birthplace  was  Lyra,  a  little  town  in  Normandy. 

8  He  was  by  birth  a  Jew,  but  was  converted  in  1390.  His  son  became 
bishop  of  Burgos  after  him,  in  1435,  and  it  was  to  this  son  that  he  had 
sent  his  additiones. 


INTERPRETATION    OF    HOLY    SCRIPTURE       471 

.gesis  of  the  original  text  or  of  a  translation.  In  the  latter 
case,  a  Catholic  commentator  is  bound  to  use  a  version  that 
has  received  the  sanction  of  the  Church,  but  where  difficulties 
occur,  he  must  always  compare  the  original,  and  if  possible 
by  that  means  throw  light  on  the  obscure  passage.  We  gen- 
erally expound  the  New  Testament  in  accordance  with  the  Greek 
text,  but  reference  must  always  be  made  to  the  Vulgate.  Most 
writers  expound  the  Old  Testament  according  to  the  Vulgate, 
but  with  reference  both  to  the  Hebrew  text  and  to  the  various 
versions,  particularly  the  Septuagint  (pf.  supra,  p.  167). 

3.  The  arrangement  of  a  commentary  on  the  Bible  is  gen- 
erally the  following: 

(a)  The  actual  commentary  is  preceded  by  an  introduction 
to  the  book,  discussing  the  author  and  the  readers  for  whom 
he  wrote,  the  motive,  purpose  and  contents  of  the  book,  and 
the  place  and  date  of  its  composition.     In  this  way  the  reader 
is  supplied  with  a  preliminary  survey  of  the  book,  is  enabled 
to  form  some  opinion  regarding  it,  and  is  prepared  to  under- 
stand its  various  parts. 

(b)  The  text  is  divided  into  sections,  either  corresponding 
to  the   chapters  in  the  book,  or  so  that  several  chapters  of 
kindred  contents  are  grouped  together  under  one  heading. 

(c)  To  the  explanation  of  each  section  is  suitably  prefixed 
the  text  under  discussion,  either  in  the  original  or  in  a  trans- 
lation, the  latter  being  more  usual. 

(d)  The  commentator  has  to  practice  textual  criticism,  j.  e. 
where  different  readings  occur  he  must  state  which  he  regards 
as  correct,  and  for  what  reasons. 

(e)  In  the  exegesis  of  the  various  sections,  for  the  purpose 
of  elucidating  obscure  passages,  the  commentator  must  avail 
himself  of  all  the  resources  of  scholarship  in  the  domains  of 
philology,  history  and  theology,  and  also  use  his  own  opinions, 
provided  always  that  he  attends  to  the  fundamental  principles 
of  the  Church  (cf.  p.  167,  etc.). 

(/)  Finally  we  expect  of  a  commentator  that  he  should 
mention  the  chief  explanations  put  forward -by  others  with 
whom  he  does  not  agree,  giving  at  the  same  time  his  reasons 
for  refusing  to  assent  to  them. 


472    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

11.    STUDY  AND  READING  OF  THE  BIBLE 

As  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  Word  of  God  should 
remain  pure  and  free  from  all  falsification,  Leo  XIII  issued 
the  following  rules  on  Jan.  25,  1897 : 

1.  The  use  of  editions  of   the  original  text  and   of  early 
Catholic    versions    that    are    published    by    non-Catholics    but 
profess  to  be  faithful  and  pure,,  is  permitted   only  to  those 
who  are  engaged   in   theological  or  biblical  studies,   provided 
that  Catholic  doctrines  are  not  attacked  in  the  prolegomena  or 
notes. 

2.  In   the   same   way   and   under   similar   conditions    other 
translations  of  the  sacred  books,  whether  in  Latin  or  in  some 
other  language,  but  not  in  the  vernacular,  are  permitted  though 
published  by  non-Catholics. 

3.  Translations  of  the  sacred  books  into  the  vernacular,  even 
if  made  by  Catholics,  are  absolutely  forbidden  unless  they  are 
approved  by  the  apostolic  See,  or,  under  the  supervision  of  the 
bishops,  are  provided  with  explanatory  notes  taken  from  the 
Fathers  or  some  approved  Catholic  authors. 

4.  All  translations  of  the  sacred  books  into  the  vernacular 
which  are  the  work  of  non-Catholics  are  forbidden,  especially 
those  distributed  by  the  so-called  Bible  societies.     They   are 
permitted,  under  the  conditions  stated  above  (I),1  only  for  the 
purposes  of  theological  or  biblical  study. 

These  rules  laid  down  by  the  Church  have  called  forth  much 
adverse  criticism  from  non-Catholics.  Protestants  go  so  far 
as  to  declare  the  reading  of  the  Bible  to  be  a  duty,  but  this  is 
a  mistake. 

Reasons  for  the  Catholic  regulations:  1.  Nowhere  in  Holy  Scripture 
is  Bible  reading  prescribed.  Jesus  Christ  gave  instructions  to  preach, 
and  consequently  also  to  hear,  the  gospel.  If  every  one  were  bound 
to  read  the  Bible,  many  could  not  be  saved.  The  early  Christians  did 
not  possess  the  whole  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and  according  to  Prot- 
estant teaching  it  is  not  certain  which  books  belong  to  them.  Cf.  p.  208. 

2.  Such  a  precept  was  unknown  throughout  all  the  early  ages  of  the 
Church.  The  Fathers  recommend  the  reading  of  the  sacred  books,  but 


1  Gregory  XVI  issued  very  similar  rules  on  Jan.  7,  1836,  and  May 
8,  1844. 


INTERPRETATION    OF    HOLY    SCRIPTURE       473 

know  nothing  of  a  command  enjoining  it;  and  their  recommendation  is 
addressed  to  priests  and  clerics.  At  the  present  time  laymen  are  also 
recommended  to  read  long  or  short  portions  of  Holy  Scripture,  or, 
under  certain  conditions  mentioned  above  (3),  the  whole  Bible. 

3.  The  Bible,  being  the  written  teaching  of  the  Church,  is  intended 
primarily  for  those  who  teach  in  the  Church,  and  only  through  them 
for  those  who  hear.     It  was  thus  under  the  Old  Covenant.     The  book 
containing  the  law  of  Moses  was  given  over  to  the  priests;    only  the 
king  was  to  have  a  copy  of  it,  and  the  people  were  required,  not  to 
read,  but  to  hear.     (Deut.  xxxi.  9,  etc.;  cf.  Deut.  xvii.  18.) 

4.  The  Bible  is  by  no  means  easy  for  every  one  to  understand,  but 
is  frequently  obscure   (supra,  p.  168),  and  even  scholars  are  not  agreed 
as  to  the  meaning  of  many  passages.     Disastrous   results   have   often 
followed  Bible  reading  by  young  persons  and  inaccurate  interpretation 
by  unqualified  people. 

5.  The  schismatic  Greek  Church,  and  even  many  Protestants,  agree 
with  the  rules  laid  down  by  the  Catholic  Church.1 


APPENDIX 
EXEGETICAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Of  the  time  of  the  Fathers  special  mention  must  be  made  of  Justin 
Martyr  (ob.  167)  and  Irenaeus  (ob.  202),  who  explain  many  parts  of  the 
Bible  in  the  course  of  their  works;  but  systematic  commentary  origi- 
nated in  Alexandria,  through  Clement  of  Alexandria  (ob.  217)  and  Ori- 
gen  (ob.  254),  who  were  followed  by  Athanasius  (ob.  373).  In  the 
fourth  century  the  exegetic  school  at  Antioch  and  Nisibis  arose,  which, 
unlike  that  of  Alexandria  with  its  fondness  for  allegory,  always  examined 
the  literal  meaning  first,  without,  however,  excluding  the  mystical  inter- 
pretation. The  chief  representatives  of  this  school  are  John  Chrysostom 
(ob.  407)  and  Ephrem  (ob.  379).  Basilius  (ob.  379)  and  Gregory  of 
Nyssa  (ob.  395)  occupy  a  position  about  midway  between  the  Alexan- 
drian and  Syrian  schools.  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  (ob.  428)  went  even 
further  than  the  school  of  Antioch,  for  he  refused  to  admit  any  mystical 
interpretation  at  all.  The  most  noted  Greek  commentators  in  the  fifth 
century  are  Cyril  of  Alexandria  (ob.  444)  and  Theodoretus  (ob.  458). 
Among  the  Latin  writers  Ambrose  (ob.  397),  Jerome  (ob.  420),  Augus- 
tine (ob.  430)  and  Gregory  the  Great  (ob.  604)  are  conspicuous  above 
all  others. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  we  have  the  Venerable  Bede  (ob.  735),  Walafried 
Strabo  (ob.  849),  Rhabanus  Maurus  (ob.  856),  Rupert  of  Deutz  (ob» 
1135),  Thomas  Aquinas  (ob.  1274),  Bonaventure  (ob.  1274),  Alphonsus 
Tostatus  (ob.  1454)  and  Dionysius  the  Carthusian  (ob.  1471). 

Nearer  our  own  times,  commentaries  of  the  whole  Bible  have  been  writ- 


1  Even  Protestants  have  recently  felt  the  necessity  of  Using  only  ex- 
tracts from  the  Bible  in  schools,  instead  of,  as  hitherto,  allowing  the 
whole  Bible  to  be  read. 


474    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

ten  by  Fr.  Vatablus  (ob.  1547  in  Paris),  Emamiel  Sa,  S.J.  (ob.  1596), 
James  Tirinus,  S.J.  (ob.  1636),  Cornelius  a  Lapide,  S.J.  (=van  den 
Steen,  born  near  Li6ge,  1566,  died  in  Rome,  1637  ),*  Stephen  Menochius, 
S.J.  (ob.  1655),  Aug.  Calmet,  Abbot  of  the  Benedictine  monastery  at 
Sennones  in  Lorraine,  died  1757. 

Wilhelm  Estius  (ob.  1613)  wrote  notes  on  the  most  important  pas- 
sages in  Holy  Scripture.  The  commentaries  of  Sa,  Tirinus  and  Estius 
were  put  together  and  united  in  John  de  la  Haye's  editions  of  the  Bible 
in  1643  and  1660. 

The  following  have  written  commentaries  on  single  parts  of  the 
Bible:  Jansen  (ob.  1576)  annotated  the  books  of  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Eccle- 
siasticus  and  Wisdom,  and  wrote  a  harmony  of  the  gospels.  Maldonatus, 
S.J.  (ob.  1583),  annotated  Jeremias,  Baruch,  Ezechiel,  Daniel,  and  espe- 
cially the  gospels;  Salmeron,  S.J.  (ob.  1585),  the  gospels  and  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles;  Agellius  (ob.  1608),  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Lamentations,  Haba- 
kuk.  Serarius,  S.J.  (ob.  1609),  annotated  most  of  the  historical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  Epistles.  Pererius,  S.J.  (ob.  1610),  wrote 
on  Genesis  and  Daniel;  Estius  (ob.  1613),  on  the  epistles;  Fr.  Lucas 
(ob.  1619),  on  the  gospels;  Bellarmine,  S.J.  (ob.  1621),  on  the  Psalms; 
Pineda,  S.J.  (ob.  1637),  on  Ecclesiastes  and  Job;  BonfrSre  (ob.  1643), 
on  the  Pentateuch,  Josue,  Judges,  Ruth,  Kings  and  Chronicles;  Corde- 
rius,  S.J.  (ob.  1650),  on  Job. 

The  best  of  these  older  commentaries  have  been  printed  in  J.  P.  Migne's 
great  work:  Scripturce  s.  Cursus  completus,  28  vols.,  Paris,  1839,  etc.,  an 
almost  inexhaustible  storehouse  of  information. 

The  most  important  and  comprehensive  modern  commentary  on  Holy 
Scripture  is  the  one  appearing  in  Latin  at  Paris,  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus;  its  title  is  Cursus  sacrw 
Scriptures,  and  over  thirty  large  octavo  volumes  of  it  have  already  been 
published.  The  chief  collaborators  are  the  Fathers  Comely,  v.  Humme- 
lauer  and  Knabenbauer.  Belonging  to  it  (besides  the  Introductio,  see 
p.  475)  is  the  Lexicon  biblicum  by  M.  Hagen,  S.J.,  of  which  three  large 
volumes  have  appeared,  but  it  is  still  unfinished. 


1  A  new  edition  of  his  commentary  on  the  gospels  appeared  at  Turin, 
1896—99,  in  4  volumes,  edited  by  A.  Padovani. 


WORKS  TO  WHICH  REFERENCE  HAS 
BEEN  MADE 

(Protestant  authors  are  marked  with  an  asterisk) 

Aberle,  M.  v.,  Einleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament,  edited  by  P.  Schanz. 

Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1877. 
Allioli,  J.  Fr.,  Handbuch  der  biblischen  Altertumskunde,  conjointly  with 

Gratz  and  Haneberg.     2  vols.     Landshut,  1844. 
Allioli,  J.  Fr.,  Die  HI.  Schrift  des  A.  u.  N.  Test,  iibersetzt  und  erlautert. 

3  vols.    Ratisbon,  1897. 

Bardenheioer,  0.,  Patrologie.     Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1901. 
Belser,  J.  E.,  Einleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament.    2d  ed.    Freiburg  i.  Br., 

1905. 
*Benzinger,  J.,  Hebraische  Archaologie.    Freiburg  and  Leipzig,  1894.    2d 

revised  edition.     Ttib.,  1907. 
Boese,  H.,  S.J.,  Die  Glaubwurdigkeit  unserer  Evangelien.     Freiburg  i. 

Br.,  1895. 
Comely,  Rud.,  S.J.,  Historica  et  critica  introductio  in  U.  T.  libros  saoros. 

Paris,  1885  seqq.    4  vols.    Ed.  2.     1893-1897. 
Comely,  Rud.,  8.J.,  Compendium  introductionis  in  s.  Scripturas.     Paris, 

1889.    Ed.  5.     1905. 
Comely,    Rud.,    S.J.,    Synopses   omnium   librorum    sacrorum    utriusque 

Test.     Paris,  1899. 
*Cornill,  C.  E.,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament.     Frb.,  Tiib.,   1891, 

1895. 

*  Delitzsch,  Fr.,  Babel  und  Bibel.     Leipzig,  1902,  1903.     This  little  work 

has  attracted  great  attention.  It  originated  in  some  lectures  given 
in  Berlin  in  the  presence  of  the  German  Emperor,  on  Jan.  13,  1902, 
and  Jan.  12,  1903,  by  Professor  Delitzsch,  who  is  well  known  as  an 
Assyriologist.  He  believes  that  the  most  important  records  in  the 
Bible  were  derived  from  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  sources,  this 
being  particularly  the  case  with  Genesis.  His  theory  gave  rise  to  a 
lively  debate  and  the  publication  of  many  articles  that  were  noticed 
at  the  time  in  Gottsberger  and  Sickenberger's  "  Biblische  Zeitschrift," 
1903-1906.  Most  of  these  works  do  not  agree  with  Delitzsch's  hy- 
pothesis. See  also  Delitzsch,  "Mehr  Licht,"  Leipzig,  1907;  cf. 
supra,  p.  272. 

*  Driver,  8.  R.,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  1891. 
*Duhm,  B.,  Die  Entstehung  des  Alten  Testamentes.     Freiburg  i.  Br.  and 

Leipzig,  1897. 

Gla,  D.,  Repertorium  der  Kath.-theol.  Literatur  von  1700-1894.    Vol.  I, 
sect.  1.    Paderborn,  1895. 


476    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Grimm,  Jos.,  Die  Samariter.    Munich,  1854. 

Grimm,  Jos.,  Einheit  der  vier  Evangelien.    Ratisbon,  1868. 

*Guthe,  H.,  Bibelworterbuch.     Ttib.  and  Lpz.,  1903. 

Haneberg,  D.  B.,  Die  religiSsen  Altertiimer  der  Bibel.    Munich,  1869. 

Hameberg,  D.  B.,  Geschichte  der  bibl.  Offenbarung.  4th  ed.  Ratisbon, 
1876. 

Herbst,  J.  G.,  Einleitung  in  die  Schriften  des  Alten  Testamentes,  edited 
by  B.  Welte.  Carlsruhe  and  Freiburg,  1840-1844. 

*Hilprecht,  H.  V.,  Excavations  in  Bible  Lands  during  the  Nineteenth 
Century.  Philadelphia,  1903.  Hilprecht  was  born  in  1859  at  Anhalt, 
and  is  now  professor  at  the  University  of  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A. 
He  has  devoted  much  time  to  the  excavations  on  the  Euphrates,  and 
in  1903  published  the  above-mentioned  work  on  the  subject.  Its  con- 
tents are  briefly  as  follows:  In  1802  Grotefend  found  the  key  to  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions,  and  afterwards  the  regions  of  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris  were  visited  by  Rich,  Botta  and  Rawlinson;  the  last- 
named  discovered  Sargon's  palace  in  Ninive  in  1842.  In  1854  the 
town  of  Ur  (now  Mugheir  or  Muqajir),  the  home  of  Abraham,  was 
discovered  in  South  Babylonia,  and  in  1878  the  town  of  Sippar. 
Since  1888  American  expeditions  have  carried  on  excavation  work  in 
the  lower  Euphrates,  and  have  succeeded  in  finding  at  Nippur  the 
kings'  library.  At  Nippur  remains  of  the  civilization  of  various 
periods  have  been  discovered  in  layers,  one  below  the  other :  Roman, 
Greek,  Parthian,  and,  lowest  of  all,  Babylonian.  Hilprecht  takes  care 
not  to  destroy  the  respect  paid  to  the  Bible.  His  work  is  not  limited 
to  the  country  near  the  Euphrates,  and  many  scholars  have  collab- 
orated with  him.  Benzinger  writes  on  the  excavations  in  Palestine, 
the  Mesa  stone  and  the  inscription  at  Siloe.  P.  Jensen  discusses  the 
Hethites,  Steindorff  the  excavations  in  Egypt,  and  Hommel  the  dis- 
coveries made  in  Arabia. 

Hoberg,  G.,  Moses  und  der  Pentateuch,  1905.  ("We  possess  a  Mosaic 
Pentateuch,  but  not  in  an  edition  prepared  by  Moses.") 

*Holtzmann,  H.  J.,  Lehrbuch  der  historisch-kritischen  Einleitung  in  das 
Neue  Testament.  3d  enlarged  and  improved  edition.  Freib.  i.  Br., 
1892. 

*Hommel,  Fr.,  Die  altisraelitische  Uberlieferung  in  inschriftlicher  Be- 
leuchtung.  Munich,  1897. 

Hopft,  H.,  Die  hohere  Bibelkritik.    Paderborn,  1905. 

Hug,  L.,  Einleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament.    2  vols.    Freib.  i.  Br.,  1846. 

Hug,  L.,  Gutachten  iiber  das  Leben  Jesu  von  Strauss.  Freib.  i.  Br., 
1846. 

v.  Hummelauer,  Fr.,  8.J.,  Der  biblische  Schopfungsbericht.  Freib.  i.  Br., 
1877  and  1898. 

v.  Hummelauer,  Fr.,  S.J.,  Commentarius  in  Pent.    Paris,  1895,  etc. 

*Jeremias,  A.,  Monotheist,  Stromungen  innerhalb  der  babyl.  Religion. 
Lpz.,  1905.  ("There  are  suggestions  of  monotheism,  but  it  is  im- 
possible to  maintain  that  monotheism  was  invented  and  discovered 
in  Babylon.  Israel  always  occupies  the  foremost  position.") 

*Jiilicher,  Ad.,  Einleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament.  5th  and  6th  ed.  Tttb. 
and  Leipzig,  1905. 


WORKS    OF   REFERENCE  477 

Kaulen,  Fr.,  Einleitung  in  die  Heilige  Schrift  des  Alten  und  Neuen  Tes- 

tamentes.    4th  and  5th  ed.    Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1898,  1905. 
Kaulen,  Fr.,  Der  biblische  Schopfungsbericht.     Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1902. 
*Kautzsch,  E.,  Die  Heilige  Schrift  des  Alten  Testamentes  ubersetzt  und 

herausgegeben.     Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1894. 
*Kayser,   Aug.,   Theologie  des  Alten  Testamentes.     2d  ed.,  by  Marti. 

Strassburg,  1894. 
Keil,  P.,  Zur  Babel-  und  Bibelfrage.    Reprinted  with  additions  from  the 

Pastor  Bonus.    Treves,  1903.    A  careful  work  throwing  considerable 

light  on  the  subject  in  question. 

*Keil,  K.  P.,  Handbuch  der  hebr.  Archaologie.    2  vols.    Leipzig,  1858. 
Keppler,  P.,  Wanderfahrten  und  Wallfahrten  im  Orient.    Freiburg  i.  Br., 

1894,  5th  ed.,  1905. 
Kihn,  H.,  Encyklopiidie  und  Methodologie  der  Theologie.    Freiburg  i.  Br., 

1892. 

Kirchenlexikon  by  Wetzer  and  Welte.    Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1847-1854. 
Kirchenlexikon    (Wetzer   and   Welte),    re-edited   by   Hergenrother   and 

Kaulen.    Vol.  I-XII.    Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1882-1901. 
*Kirchhoff,  A.,  Palastinakunde.    Halle,  1899. 
Kley,  J.,  Die  Pentateuchfrage.    Miinster,  1904. 
*Kruger,  (?.,  Entstehung  des  Neuen  Testamentes.     Freiburg  i.  Br.  and 

Leipzig,  1896. 

Kunstle,  K.,  Das  Comma  Johanneum.    Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1905. 
Langen,  J.,  Grundriss  der  Einleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament.     Freiburg 

i.  Br.,  1868. 

Loch,  V.,  and  Reischl,  W.,  Die  hi.  Schriften  des  Alten  und  Neuen  Testa- 
mentes ubersetzt  und  erlautert.    Ratisbon,  1851. 

*Maurer,  Fr.,  Hebr.  u.  chald.  Handworterbuch  zum  A.  T.    Stuttgart,  1851. 
Mayer,  Bon.,  Das  Judentum.    Ratisbon,  1843. 
* Meyer,  Ed.,  Entstehung  des  Judentums.    Halle,  1896. 
Migne,  J.  P.,  Scriptures  sacrae  cursus  completus.    28  vols.    Parisiis,  1839. 
*Nestle,  E.,  Einfuhrung  in  das  Griech.  Neue  Testament.    Gottingen,  1897. 
Nikel,  J.,  Der  Monotheismus  Israels  in  der  vorexilischen  Zeit.     Pader- 

born,  1893. 

Nikel,  J.,  Genesis  und  Keilschriftforschung.     Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1903. 
Pawliki,  M.,  Ursprung  des  Christentums.    Mayence,  1885. 
Partner,  B.,  Die  Autoritat  der  deuterokanonischen  Biicher  des  Alten  Tes- 
tamentes.   Miinster,  1893. 

Reithmayr,  Fr.  X.,  Einleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament.    Ratisbon,  1852. 
Reithmayr,  Fr.  X.,  Lehrbueh  der  biblischen  Hermeneutik,  edited  by  V. 

Thalhofer.    Kempten,  1874. 
Reusch,  Fr.  H.,  Lehrbueh  der  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament.    3d  ed. 

Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1868. 
*Reuss,  E.,  Die  Geschichte  der  heil.  Schriften  des  Alten  Testamentes. 

Brunswick,  1881. 
*Riehm,  E.  K.  A.,  Worterbuch  der  bibl.  Altertttmer.     2  vols.     Bielefeld 

and  Leipzig,   1875,  etc. 

*Sayce,  A.  H.,  Fresh  Lights  from  Ancient  Monuments.    London,  1883. 
Schafer,  B.,  Altertumer  der  Bibel,    2d  ed.    Munster,  1891. 
Schafer,  B.,  Kurzgef.  wissenschaftl.  Kornmentar  zum  Alten  und  Neuen 


478    HANDBOOK  FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Testament,  mit  mehreren  herausgegeben  von  B.  Schafer.  12  and  7 
vols.  Vienna,  1901,  etc. 

Schegg,  P.,  Biblische  Archaologie,  edited  by  Wirthmtiller.  Freiburg  i. 
Br.,  1886. 

Schenz,  W.,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament.    Ratisbon,  1887. 

*Schleusner,  J.  Fr.,  Lexicon  gr.  lat.  in  N.  T.    Lips.     1792. 

Schopfer,  Am.,  Geschichte  des  Alten  Testamentes.    4th  ed.    Brixen,  1906. 

Scholz,  P.,  Die  heiligen  Altertumer  Israels.    2  vols.    Ratisbon,  1868. 

*Schilrer,  E.,  Geschichte  des  jiidischen  Volkes  im  Zeitalter  Jesu  Christi. 
3  vols.  and  one  vol.  containing  index.  3d  ed.  Leipzig,  1898-1902. 

Sellin,  E.,  Die  alttestamentliche  Religion  in  Rahmen  der  andern  alt- 
orientalischen.  Leipzig,  1908.  The  author  compares  the  ritual,  cus- 
toms, laws,  pious  practices,  faith  and  doctrine  as  set  forth  in  the 
Old  Testament  with  those  of  other  Oriental  religions.  Points  of  re- 
semblance are  discovered  and  examined.  The  result  is  to  prove  them 
not  the  same,  but  totally  different.  The  religion  of  Israel  stands 
alone,  and  is  far  above  that  of  neighboring  nations. 

*8iegfried  and  Stade,  Hebraisches  Worterbuch  zum  A.  T.    Leipzig,  1893. 

*Smend  and  Socin,  Die  Inschrift  des  Konigs  Mesa  von  Moab.  Freiburg 
i.  Br.,  1886. 

* Stade,  BernTi.,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel.    2  vols.    Berlin,  1888,  etc. 

*Stade,  Bernh.,  Entstehung  des  Volkes  Israel.     Giessen,  1899. 

*Steuernagel,  G.,  Allg.  Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch.     Gottingen,  1900. 

*Strack,  H.  L.,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament.    6th  ed.    Munich,  1906. 

Trenkle,  Fr.  Sal.,  Einleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament.  Freiburg  i.  Br., 
1897. 

*Volck,  K.  J.,  Entwicklungsgeschichte  der  alttest.  Religion  nach  der  Graf- 
Wellhausenschen  Hypo  these.  Carlsruhe,  1891. 

Weinhart,  B.,  Das  Neue  Testament.     2d  ed.    Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1899. 

*Wellhausen,  Jul.,  Prolegomena  zur  Geschichte  Israels.     Berlin,  1886. 

*Wellhausen,  Jul.,  Israelitische  und  jiidische  Geschichte.     Berlin,  1894. 

Welte,  B.,  Nachmosaisches  im  Pentateuch.    Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1841. 

*Winer,  G.  B.,  Biblisches  Realworterbuch.    2  vols.    3d  ed.    Leipzig,  1847. 

*Winckler,  H.,  Die  Tontafeln  von  Tell  el  Amarna.    Berlin,  1896. 

*Zahn,  Th.,  Geschichte  des  neutestamentlichen  Kanons.  2  vols.  Er- 
langen  and  Leipzig,  1888,  1890. 

Ziegler,  L.,  Die  lateinischen  Bibeliibersetzungen  von  Hieronymus  und  die 
Itala  des  Augustinus.  Munich,  1879. 

*Zimmern,  H.,  Biblische  und  babylonisch.e  Urgeschichte.  Leipzig,  1901. 
Contains  opinions  similar  to  those  expressed  by  Delitzsch  in  the  work 
mentioned  above.  Contents:  Creation,  Paradise,  Patriarchs,  story 
of  the  Deluge. 


CONCLUSION 

I  INT  Holy  Scripture  God  Himself  tells  us  how  His  kingdom 
was  established  among  men  as  a  protest  against  godlessness, 
and  was  maintained  in  the  times  of  the-  prophets  in  spite  of 
the  great  powers  of  the  world;  how  it  was  transformed  by 
His  Son  to  be  the  kingdom  of  the  Messias,  which  was  origi- 
nally like  a  grain  of  mustard  seed,  but  has  spread  more  and 
more  among  all  nations,  and  for  over  nineteen  hundred  years  has 
stood  firm  as  the  power  of  God  amidst  mankind.  This  kingdom, 
the  Church,  has  fought  its  way  through  paganism  in  Western 
Asia,  Greece  and  Eome,  has  prevailed  over  the  barbarism  of 
savages,  has  endured  in  spite  of  all  sects  and  divisions,  and 
still  at  the  present  day  stands  as  firmly  on  the  rock,  its  foun- 
dation, as  it  ever  did  in  antiquity  or  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
If  now  the  struggle  against  the  Church  is  carried  on  with 
more  violence  and  arrogance  than  ever  before,  we  are  certain, 
from  God's  promises  contained  in  the  sacred  books,  and  from 
the  experience  of  so  many  centuries,  that  no  power  in  the 
world,  no  malice  and  no  pretended  wisdom  will  ever  succeed  in 
destroying  that  kingdom  which  God  intended  to  be  for  the 
salvation  of  all  who  desire  to  avoid  temporal  and  eternal  ruin. 
If  a  man  has  fathomed  the  secret  of  God's  kingdom  on  earth, 
—  and  it  is  an  open  secret,  —  scales  seem  to  fall  from  his  eyes 
when  he  reads  Holy  Scripture,  but  if  he  has  not  understood 
it,  and  does  not  know  and  recognize  the  divine  institution  of 
the  Church,  Holy  Scripture  remains  to  him  a  book  sealed  with 
a  sevenfold  seal.  It  was  only  to  those  of  His  disciples  who 
believed  in  Christ  that  the  Holy  Ghost  gave  understanding 
(Matt.  xiii.  11). 


480    HANDBOOK  FOE  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Unbelief  may  proclaim  as  loudly  as  it  will  that  it  has  dis- 
covered the  key  to  a  correct  understanding  of  the  Bible;  it  is 
mistaken,  as  certainly  as  God  is  everlasting  truth.  For 

"  Opinionum  commenta  delet  dies ; 
sed  veritas  manet  et  invalescit  in  seternum." 

3  Esdr.  iv.  38. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Abdias,  book  of,  312 

Abraham,  20,  28,  57 ;  history  of,  37 

Abu-Gosch,  29 

Accaron,  21 

Achaz,  King,  64 

Acta  Pilati,  210 

Acts  of  the  Apostles,  399 

Adama,  11 

Adonis,  62 

Adramelech,  63,  64 

Mlid  Capitolina,  22 

Agar,  37 

Aggeus,  book  of,  348 

Akra,  23 

Alcala  Bible,  224 

Allah,  56 

Alloho,  56 

Altar  of  holocausts,  74;  in  the 
Temple,  84 

Altar  of  Incense,  77;  in  the 
Temple,  84 

Amalakites,  19 

Amalekites,    137 

Ammonites,  37,  42 

Amorites,  20 

Amos,  book  of,  309 

Amraphel,  272 

Amwas,  29 

Anaitis,  61 

Anamelech,  63,  64 

Anathoth,  28 

Animals,  unclean,  131 

worship  of,  65 

Antilibanus,  9 

Antiochus  Epiphanes,  23,  66 ;  dese- 
crating the  Temple,  86 

Antonia,  23,  24 

Anu,  King,  63 

Aphrodite,  61 

Apion,  the  Sophist,  67 


Apis,  65 

Apocalypse,  the,  444 

Apocryphal  books,  208 

Aquilas  of  Sinope,  238 

Arimathea,  29 

Aristides,  362 

Ark  of  the  Covenant,  39;  descrip- 
tion of,  78 

Ark,  in  possession  of  Philistines, 
80 

in  the  Temple,  84 

on  Mount  Sion,  80 

Arnon,  9 

Asasel,  151 
Ascalon,  21 
Aschera,  61 
Ascherim,  61 
Ascheroth,  61 
Asdod,  21 
Aser,  22 
Asima,  65 

Assumptio  Mosis,  443 
Assyrian  deities,  63 
Assyrians,  38 
Astarte,  20,  61 
Asurbanipal,  55 
Atargateion,  63 
Atargatis,  63 
Augustus,  31 
Auranitis,  33 
Awites,  19,  65 
Axhtoreth,  61 
Azotus,  21 

Baal,  20,  60,  62,  63 

Baal-azar,  65 

Baal-berith,  Baal-peor,  Baal-sebub, 

Baal-semes,  60 
Baaltis,  61 

Babylon,  38,  55,  57,  60 
Babylonians,  61 


484 


INDEX 


Babylonian  deities,  63 

Banias,  33 

Banishment  (Mosaic  law),  138 

Baruch,  book  of,  326 

Basan,  32,  33 

Batanaea,  33 

Beelzebub,  see  Baal-sebub 

Beersabe,  28 

Beitun,  28 

Bel,  see  Baal 

Bellarmine,  Cardinal,  189 

Beltis,  61 

Benjamin,  21 

Bethania,  395 

Bethany,  27 

Bethdagon,  63 

Bethel,  28 

Bethlehem,  situation  of,  27 

Bethphage,  27 

Bethsaida,  32 

Bezetha,  24 

Biblos,  62 

Bilit,  61 

Blessings  (Mosaic),  137 

Bonfrerius,  189 

Book  of  the  Dead  (Turin),  56 

of  Wisdom,  355 

Books  of  Chronicles,  336 

of  Kings,  334 

Brazen  laver,  74 

Bread  of  proposition,  76 

unleavened,  148,  149 

Codex  Alexandrinus,  230 

Amiatinus,  251 

Bezce,  230 

Cantdbrigiensis,  230 

Claramontanus,  206,  231 

Fuldensis,  251 

Laudianus,  231 

Lewis,  245 

Matthcei  Dullinensis  resc.,  230 

Parisi,ensis,  230 

Regius,  230 

Rosscmensis,  231 

Sinaiticus,  245 

Vaticanusy  229 

Csesarea,  30 

-  Philippi,  33 
Cahathites,  93 


Calendar,  139 
Callirrhoe,  33 
Calmet,  Doma  189 
Cana,  31 

Candlestick,  golden,  75 
Canon,  Alexandrian,  197 

Hebrew,  196 

of  Holy  Scripture,  195  et .  seq. 

Palestine,  197 

Protestant  opinions  of,  207 

Canonization,  195 

Canticle  of  Canticles,  294 
Capharnaum,  32 
Cappadocia,  21 
Captivity,  history  of,  38,  39 
Carmel,  see  Mount  Carmel 
Casa  Sancta,  31 
Cassiodorus,  188 
Catacombs,  201 
Cedmonites,  20 
Cedron,  26 

Valley,  27 

Cenezites,  20 

Chaldaean  Genesis,  55 

Chalil,  136 

Cham,  5,  19 

Chamath,  65 

Chamez,  16 

Chamos,  63 

Chanaan,  6,  7,  28,  31,  37,  40 

Chanaanites,  7,  20 

deities  of,  61 

worship  of,  62 

Chaschen,  97 
Chattath,  112 
Chazozera,  136 
Cheth,  20 

Chev,  21 

Christ,  birthplace  of,  27 

crucified  "  without  the  camp," 

113 

place  of  death  of,  25 

spoken  of  by   Josephus   Fla- 

vius,  67 

Churam  of  Tyre,  82 
Circumcision,  127  et  seq. 
Coelosyria,  9 
Colossce,  423 

Commandments,  Noachic,  130 
Commentaries,  470 


INDEX 


485 


Complutensis,  224 
Confession  of   sins,   in  Old  Testa- 
ment, 107 
Corinth,  415 

Council  of  Trent,  200,  253 
Creation,  six  days'  work,  260 

story  of,  261 

Crete,  21 

Cubit,  equivalent  of,  69 
Curses  (Mosaic),  137 
Cutha,  65 
Cyprus,  62 

Dagon,  62 
Damascus,  33 
Dan,  21 
Dancing,  136 
Daniel,  book  of,  330 
David,  23,  38,  80,  81 
Day  of  atonement,  150 
Dead,  cultus  of  the,  117 
Dead  Sea,  6,  10 
Death,  defilement  of,  121 
Decapolis,  33 

Decisions  of  the  Biblical  Commis- 
sion,  184 
Delia  Valle,  244 
Derketo,  62 
Deuterocanonical,  200 
Deuteronomium,  40,  260 

described    and    defended,    46 

et  seq. 

Diatessaron,  210,  362 

Dibon,  33 

Didache,  210 

Divine   origin   of   Holy   Scripture, 

191 
Duim,  33 

Ebal,  see  Mount  Ebal 
Ecclesiastes,  book  of,  297 
Ecclesiasticus,  book  of,  352 
Edomites,  37 
Egypt,  37 

worship  in,  65 

Egyptian  deities,  65 
Egyptians,  20,  44 
El,  56 
El  Ghor,  6 
Eliasib,  52 


El  Kuds,  22 

Elohim,  273 

Elohistic  history,  40 

Elzevir,  232 

Emath,  65 

Emmaus,  29 

Enakites,  19 

Encaenia,  feast  of  the,  86 

Encyclica    Providentissimus    Deus, 

159 

Ephesus,  420 
Ephod,  97 
Ephraim,  21 
Era,  Jewish,  141 
Erasmus  of  Rotterdam,  231 
Esau,  37 
Esdras,  38 

and  Nehemias,  books  of,  338 

Esdrelon,  9,  22 

Esmun-Thammus,  65 

Esra,  54 

Essenes,  104 

Esther,  book  of,  340 

Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  188 

Excommunication     (Mosaic    law), 

138 

Exegetical  bibliography,  473 
Exodus,  259 
Ezechias,  25 
Ezechiel,  book  of,  328 

Faith  inherent  in  all  nations,  57 
Fasting,  133 
Feast  of  Purim,  154 

of  Rejoicing  of  the  Law,  155 

of  Tabernacles,  153 

of  the  Dedication  of  the  Tem- 
ple, 155 

of  Weeks,  149 

of  Wood  Carrying,  155 

Feasts  of  modern  Jews,  155 
Flavius,  see  Josephus 
Food,  laws  concerning,  131 
Fragmentum  Muratorii,  205 

Gad,  22 

Gadara,  33 

Galaad,  32 

Galatia,  418 

Galilee,  22;   geography,  31 


486 


INDEX 


Garizim,  see  Mount  Garizim 

Gath,  21 

Gaulonitis,  33 

Gaza,  21 

Gedeon,  46 

Gedeschim,  61 

Gedeschot,  61 

Gehenna,  27 

Gemara,  67,  68 

Genesareth,  see  Lake 

Genesis,  259 

Chaldsean,  55 

Gerasa,  33 
Gergesites,  20 
Gersanites,  93 
Gethsemane,  27 
Gilead,  6,  32 
Girgas,  20 
Glosses,  469 
Golan,  33 

Golden  candlestick,  75 
Golgotha,  24 
Gomorrha,  11 
Gospel  of  Marcion,  209 

of  Nicodemus,  210 

of  Peter,  209 

of  Saint  John,  391 

of  Saint  Luke,  383 

of  Saint  Mark,  374 

of  Saint  Matthew,  365 

Gospels,  evidence  of  authenticity  of, 

359 

objections  refuted,  360 

Habakuk,  book  of,  320 
Hadrian,  22 
Hammurabi,  57,  272 
Haran,  37 

Harding,  Stephen,  252 
Hauran,  33 

Heaving,  ceremony  of,  111 
Heber,  7 
Hebron,  9,  28 
Henoch,  book  of,  443 
Herakles,  Tyrian,  61 
Hermeneutics,  449  et  seq. 
Hermon,  see  Mount  Hermon 
Herod  I,  23,  31 
Herod  Agrippa,  25 
Herod  Antipas,  32,  33 


Herodians  (sect),  105 
Herodotus,  20 
Herod's  Temple,  87 
Hesebon,  33 
Hesychius,  241 
Heta,  20 
Hethites,  20 
Hevites,  19,  21,  65 
Hexapla,  240,  244 
High  priest,  96 
Hillel,  104,  243 
Hinnom,  63 

valley  of,  64 

Hippus,  33 
Hiram,  King,  81 
Hodceporicon  s.  Willibaldi,  4 
Holocausts,  109  (see  also  Altar  of) 
Holofernes,  344 

Holy  of  Holies,  78 

Holy  Scripture,  accommodation,  457 

apocryphal  books  of,  208 

canon  of,  195 

•  deuiterocanonical  books  of,  200 

editio  recepta,  232 

Hebrew       manuscripts       and 

printed  editions  of,   222 

inspiration  of,  190  et  seq. 

interpretation  of,  449  et  seq. 

origin  of,  190 

original  text  of,  212  et  seq. 

—  polyglot  bibles,  232 

protocanonical  books,  200 

translations,  234 

Horites,  15 

Hugo  a  Santo  Caro,  219 
Hyksos,  20 
Hyssop,  146 

Iconoclasm  (of  Leo  XIII),  59 

Ilu,  56 

Image  worship,  59 

Inspiratian  of  Holy  Scripture,  190 

et  seq. 
Interpretation  of  Holy   Scripture, 

449 

Isaac,  37 
Isagoge,  188 
Isaias,  book  of,  315 
Ismael,  37 
Israel,  7 


INDEX 


487 


Israel,  coins,  120 

-  cubit  measure,  69 

holy  persons  in,  90 

-  measures  for  liquids,  118 

Monotheism  and  Polytheism, 

56 

priests  in,  94 

-  religious  institutions,  66 
Israelites,  21 

-  history  of,  37 

-  in  Egypt,  65 

sects,  103 

-  worship  of  idols,  61,  62,  63 
Issachar,  22 

Istar,  61 
Itala,  247 
Itinera  hierosol.,  4 
Itinerarium  Burdigalense,  4 
Itursea,  33 

Jabbok,  9 
Jacob,  21,  37 
Jaffa,  29 

Jealousy  offerings,  119 
Jebus,  20,  22 
Jebusites,  20 
Jeremias,  book  of,  322 
Jericho,  28,  60 
Jeroboam,  53 
Jerusalem,   destroyed,   38 
—  named  Jebus,  20 

-  situation  of,  22,  24,  25 
Jethur,  33 

Jewish  sects,  103 

Jews,  38 

Job,  book  of,  298 

Joel,  book  of,  310 

John  Hyrcanus,  89 

John  the  Baptist,  place  of  death,  33 

Joiada,  52 

Jonas,  29 

book  of,  307 

Joppe,  29 
Jordan,  6,  10,  22 
Josaphat,  see  Valley 
Joseph,  21,  37 

Josephus  Flavius,  22,  32,  33,  66,  67 

Josias,  47 

Josue,  21 

book  of,  275 


Jubilee,  year  of  (Mosaic),  145 

Juda,  21 

Juda  Hakkadosch,  67 

Judsea,  22 

Judas  Maehabaeus,  63,  86 

Judges,  book  of,  277 

Judith,  book  of,  344 

Junilius,  188 

Juno,  61 

Justin  Martyr,  361 

Kana-Eldschelil,  32 

Kana-Galil,  32 

Kanatha,  33 

Kaphtor,  21 

Kapporeth,  79 

Kariathiarim,  29 

Kefr-Kana,  32 

Kemosch,  42 

Ken,  75 

Kenites,  19 

Ketura,  37 

Kidron,  26 

Kijjim,  59 

King  Anu,  63 

Kings  of  the  Northern  Kingdom,  303 

of  the  Southern  Kingdom,  303 

Kinnor,  136 
Kison,  9 
Kronos,  59,  64 
Kubeibeh,  29 
Kulonieh,  29 
Kutu,  65 

Lais,  21 

Lake  Genesareth,  10,  13,  22 

Lake  Merom,  10 

Lamentations,  book  of,  325 

Langton,  Stephen,  219 

Languages,  biblical,  212 

Laws    concerning    food    (Mosaic), 

131 

Lebanon,  see  Mount  Lebanon 
Legal  defilement    (Mosaic),  121 
Leprosy,  14 

uncleanness  due  to,  122 

Levi,  21 

tribe  of,  90 

Levites,  as  judges,  93 

in  charge  of  worship,  91 


488 


INDEX 


Levites,  Mosaic  origin,  101 
-  purification  of,  94,  99 
Leviticus,  259 
Lewis  Codex,  245 
Liquid  measures,  see  Israel 
Little  Lebanon,  9 
Locusts,  14,  16 
Lore  to,  31 
Lot,  37 
Lucian,  241 
Ludd,  29 
Luna,  61 
Lydda,  29 

Macedonia,  417,  422 

Machabseus,  see  Judas  M. 

Machabees,  books  of,  346 

Machserus,  33 

Madaba,  34 

Magdala,  32 

Majuscules,  228 

Malachias,  book  of,  350 

Malkom,  63 

Manasses,  21,  25,  54 

Marcion,  209 

Marduk,  60 

Marriage  laws  (Mosaic),  124 

Martini,  Raimundus,  188 

Mary,  Saint,  26 

Masora,  the,  220,  225 

Masoretic  text,  52 

Matthew,  the  apostle,  366  et  seq. 

Measures,  see  Israel 

Meil,  97 

Melchisedech,  20 

Melito,  199 

Merarites,  93 

Merodak,  60 

Micheas,  book  of,  314 

Milkom,  42,  63 

Minuscules,  228 

Mishna,  67 

Moab,  33 

Moabites,  37,  42,  60 

Moloch,  27,  59,  63,  64 

Money  in  Israel,  120 

Monophysites,  246 

Months  in  Jewish  calendar,  140 

Mopsuestia,  Theodorus  of,  188,  295 

Moria,  23 


Moses,  22,  37,  268,  etc. 
Mount  Carmel,  9,  22 
Mount  Ebal,  9 
Mount  Garizim,  9 

building  of  temple  on,  52 

Mount  Hernion,  9 
Mount  Lebanon,  4,  6,  9 

cedars  of,  81 

Mount  Moria,  80 
Mount  of  Olives,  9,  26 
Mount  Sinai,  37,  40,  62,  69 
Mount  Sion,  23 

Mount  Thabor,  9 
Music  (in  Mosaic  worship),  134 
Musical  instruments,  136 
Mylitta,  61 

Nablus,  30 

Nabuchodonosor,  344 

Nahum,  book  of,  318 

Nairn,  31 

Nazareth   (situation),  30 

Nazirites,  95,  116 

Neapolis,  30 

Nebahaz,  65 

Nebel,  136 

Nebiim,  199 

Nehemias,  25,  38 

Nephtali,  22 

Nergal,  65 

Nethinim,  93 

New  Moons,  festival  of,  144 

Nibhaz,  65 

Nicholas  of  Lyra,  188 

Nicopolis,  29 

Noachic  commandments,  130 

Numbers,  book  of,  259 

Omri,  30 

Onesimus,  431 

Onkelos,  243 

Onomasticon,  4 

Ophel,  23 

Oriental  records,  55 

Origen,  188,  199,  240,  244 

Orotal,  63 

Osee,  book  of,  313 

Palestine,  geography  of,  4  et  seq. 

inhabitants  of,  19 


INDEX 


489 


Palimpsests,  229 
Paneas,  33 
Papias,  367 
Paralipomena,  336 
Paraphrases,  466 
Pasch,  festival  of  the,  146 

time  of,  140 

Paschal  supper,  16 
Patriarchs,  37 

Paul  of  Telia,  242,  246 

Peace  offerings,  110 

Peor,  60 

Pella,  33 

Pentateuch,  criticism,  265 

defended,  42,  267 

description  of,  259 

objections  to,  272 

rationalistic  criticism,  39,  40, 

50,  272 

Samaritan,  52 

Pentecost,  festival  of,  149 

time  of,  140 

Persea,  6,  22,  33 
Peregrinatio  s.  Paulw,  4 
Peregrinatio  s.  Silvice  Aquitanw,  4 
Persians,  38 

Peshitto,  205,  245 

Pharisees   (sect),  104 

Phegor,  60 

Pherezites,  19 

Philadelphia,  33, 

Philemon,  431 

Philippi,  422 

Philistaea,  cultus  of,  63 

Philistine-land,  8 

Philistines,  19,  21 

Philo,  66,  73,  398 

Phoenicians,  20,  44 

Pilate,  24 

Plague,  14 

Poetry,  Old  Testament,  282 

Polycarp,  246 

Polyglot  bibles,  232 

Polyglotta  Complutensis,  231 

Prandium,  17 

Prayer,  134 

Priests,  94 

Priests'  Code,  40,  48,  49,  51,  55 

Priests,  consecration  of,  99 

duties  of3  95?  99 


Priests,  vestments  of,  97 
Priesthood  (Mosaic  origin),  101 
Prophets,  48,  199,  304  et  seq. 
Proselytes,  reception  of,  130 
Protocanonical,  200 
Protoevangelium   of    Saint   James, 

209 

Proverbs,  book  of,  291 
Psalter,  the,  284 
Ptolemies,  38 
Purifications    (Mosaic),  121 

Rabbath  Ammon,  33 

Rama,  28 

Rameses  II,  20 

Ramie,  29 

Raphaites,  19 

Raphana,  33 

Rationalist    criticism,    39,    40,    50, 

101,  114,  272 
Rechabites,  19 
Reformation,  253 
Roboam,  38 
Rome,  57,  412 
Ruben,  22 

Sabaism,  58 
Sabbath,  141 
Sacraments  of  the  Old  Covenant, 

112 
Sacrifices,  bloody,  109 

drink  offerings,  118 

fixed  times  for  sin  offerings, 


112 


109 


for  lepers,  116 

holocausts  or  burnt  offerings, 
) 

jealousy  offerings,  119 
meat  offerings,  117 
nature  of  offerings,  106 
Nazirite,  116 
peace  offerings,  110 
ritual  of,  107 
sin  offerings,  112 
the  red  cow,  115 
trespass  offerings,  113 
unbloody,  117 
varieties  of,  109 


Sadducees,  104 
Sadok,  104 


490 


INDEX 


Saint  Augustine,  188 
Saint  Bartholomew,  32 
Saint  Georgius,  29 
Saint  James,  epistle  of,  434 
Saint  Jerome,  188,  250 
Saint  John,  gospel  of,  391 

the  apostle,  392 

epistles  of,  439 

Saint  Jude,  epistle  of,  442 
Saint  Luke,  gospel  of,  383 
Saint  Mark,  gospel  of,  374 
Saint  Mary,  26 

Saint  Mary  Magdalen,  32 
Saint  Matthew,  gospel  of,  365 
Saint  Paul,  the  apostle,  405  et  seq. 

at  Csesarea,  31 

epistles  of,  411 

Saint  Peter,  376 

epistles  of,  436 

Salem,  22 
Salmeron,  189 
Samaria,  22,  38 

geography  of,  30 

Samaritans,  52^  54 
Samuel,  books  of,  280 
Samum,  14 
Sanaballat,  52 

Sara,  37 

Sargon,  20 

Saron,  9 

Saturn,  64 

Saul,  38 

Schekina,  79 

Schemer,  30 

Schittim,  wood  of,  69 

Scholia,  467 

ScKophar,  136 

Scribes,  103 

Scythopolis,  33 

Sebarim,  64 

Sebaste,  30 

Seboim,  11 

Segor,  11 

SeleucidsB,  38 

Semitic  inhabitants,  19,  20 

Sepharvarim,  64 

Septuagint,  52,  235 

Seraphim,  59 

Serarius,  189 

Sesostris,  20 


Sexual  uncleanness,  123 

Shammai,  104 

Shechem,  see  Sichem 

Shewbread,  77 

Sichem,  30 

Silo,  28 

Siloa,  27 

Simeon,  21 

Simon,  Richard,  189 

Sin  offerings,  112 

fixed  times  for,  112 

Sinai,  see  Mount  Sinai 
Singing  (Mosaic  worship),  135 
Sion,  23 

Sirach,  book  of,  352 

Sistrum,  136 

Six  days'  work  in  creation,  260 

Sixtus  of  Siena,  189 

Soccoth,  46 

Sochothbenoth,  64 

Sodom,  11 

Solomon,  23,  38 

worship  of  idols,  61 

Somer,  30 

Sophonias,  book  of,  319 
Star  worship,  58 
Stephanus,  Robert,  232 
Strabo,  4 

Sullus,  Raimundus,  188 
Sychar,  395 

Syllabus  of  Errors^  179 
Symmachus,  239 
Synagogues,  89 
Synedrium,  103 
Synoptic  writers,  390 

Tabernacle,  at  Silo,  29 

description  of,  69 

in  the  wilderness,  80 

Tachasch,  72 

Talmud,  54,  67 

Tammus,  62 

Targumim,  242 

Taschlich,  153 

Tatian's  Diatessaron,  210,  362 

Taxes,  in  Palestine,   18 

to  the  Temple,  119 

Tejazir,  30 
Telia,  see  Paul 
.Temple,  the,  23: 


INDEX 


491 


Temple,  at  Leontopolis,  89 

desecrated        by      Antiochus 

Epiphanes,  86 

destroyed  and  rebuilt,  38 

duties  of  the  priests  in  the, 

10 

Herod's,  87 

idolatrous  cultus  in,  65 

officer  of  the,  93 

on  Garizim,  54,  89 

on  Mount  Moria,  80 

Solomon's,  80 

taxes,  119 

vestments,  97 

worship  in,  141 

Zorobabel's,  85 

Terach,  37 
Tetrapla,  241 

Thabor,  see  Mount  Thabor 

Thare,  37 

Tharsis,  29 

Thartak,  65 

Theodotion,  241 

Theophilus  of  Antioch,  395 

Theopneustia,  192 

Thessalonica,  424 

Thirza,  30 

Thora,  39,  199,  236 

Thummim,  98 

Tiberias,  32 

Timothy,  427 

Titus,  429 

Tobias,  book  of,  342 

Trachona,  33 

Trachonitis,  33 

Translations  of  the  Bible,  235 

Trespass  offerings,  113 

Triclinia,   17 

Tubarich,  32 

Tychicus,  421 


Tyrian  Herakles,  61 
Tyropoeon,  22 

Ugab,  136 
Uncials,  228 
Unclean  animals,  131 
Uncleanness,  due  to  death,  121 

due  to  leprosy,  122 

-  sexual,  122 

Ur,  37,  57 
Urim,  98 

Valley  of  Hinnom,  27 

of  Josaphat,  26 

Mambre,  28 

Venus,  61 
Vespasian,  30 
Vows  (Mosaic),  137 
Vulgate,  the,  247 

Waving,  ceremony  of,  111 

Works  to  which  reference  has  been 

made,  474 
Worship,  in  Temple,  141 

of  animals,  65 

of  images,  59 

of  stars,  58 

on  high  places,  62 

Yahvist,  55 

Yahvistic  history,  40 

Yahweh,  273 

Year,  Sabbatical,  140,  144 

Zabulon,  22 

Zacharias,  book  of,  349 
Zaddikim,  104 
Zakmuku  Zarbanit,  65 
Zarabanit,  65 
Zorobabel's  temple,  85 


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